Study-Guide

Portugal

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Current Revision posted to Study-Guide by user22387 on 2/12/2025 11:58:36 AM

Table of Contents

Portugal
The History of Port, Madeira and Portuguese Wine
Portuguese Wine Classifications and Grape Varieties
Minho and Vinho Verde
Transmontano
Duriense: Douro and Porto
Beiras
Lisboa
Península de Setúbal
Tejo and Alentejano
Algarve
Açores
Terras Madeirenses
Review Quizzes

Portugal

Portugal ranks as the world’s 10th largest producer of wine; the country is 1st in the world in per capita consumption.

Although its fame in the world of wine rests squarely on the shoulders of two great fortified wines, the country is rapidly developing an arsenal of modern table wines, sourced from a diverse array of over 250 unique native varieties. Worldwide decline in the sales (and interest) of fortified wines has prompted Portuguese producers to look beyond Port and Madeira in an effort to compete, but years of geographical and—until the last decades of the 20th century—political isolation have left an inscrutable, perplexing vineyard terrain. Rather than adopt the same international varieties that characterize newer winemaking regions worldwide, Portuguese producers instead look to their own bounty of grapes and traditions. New research continues to identify the best indigenous varieties and clonal selections for quality table wines, and technological advancements in the winery allow Portugal’s table wines to overcome past criticisms of rapid oxidation and rusticity.

The History of Port, Madeira and Portuguese Wine

The history of wine in Portugal closely parallels that of its Iberian neighbor Spain through the Age of Exploration. Wine in Portugal predates the Phoenicians, Greeks, Celts, and Romans, each of whom arrived in turn prior to the Common Era. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the ensuing Germanic and Moorish conquests of the region frustrated—but did not eradicate—viticulture. Portugal expelled the Moors and affirmed its national identity by 1250, over two centuries before Spain would conclude its Reconquista. In 1386, Portugal signed the Treaty of Windsor with England, establishing a diplomatic alliance that would pave the way for extensive trade between the two kingdoms. Portugal emerged from the Middle Ages with great interest in maritime trading routes and exploration, and developed the first great navy in modern Europe. At Prince Henry the Navigator’s instigation, Portuguese sailors explored the African Coast and discovered the Madeira archipelago in 1419, nearly 625 miles from the Portuguese mainland. The Portuguese colonized Madeira, the “isle of woods,” and promptly set fire to the forests to make it suitable for agriculture. Legend reports that the fires burned for seven years, consuming the entire island, although modern residents scoff at the suggestion. Madeira became an important port of call for ships heading either eastward toward India or westward toward the New World, as captains filled their ships with fresh food, sugar, and wine.

In 1678, two Englishmen arrived in Lamego, a mountain town in the Douro Valley, and discovered Porto (Port), a sweet, fortified vinous concoction produced at a local monastery. The abbot of Lamego practiced mutage, arresting the fermentation of his wines with brandy while sugar was still present. The Englishmen sent the wines home to Liverpool, where the strength and richness of Port, nicknamed blackstrap, earned it wide popularity. War and trade embargoes with France at the end of the 17th century resulted in a boom for sales of Douro wines. A 1679 ban on French wines sales in England was lifted in 1685, only to be reinstated in 1688. The English replaced the total ban with heavy tariffs in 1697, and in 1703 signed the Treaty of Methuen with Portugal, establishing a long-lasting trade agreement between the two nations and preferential tariffs for Portuguese wines. The English had relied on the light reds of the Minho River Valley in northern Portugal as an alternative to claret since the early 12th century, but had always considered French wines superior. Port was, in style and strength, a wine that could rouse English tastes; the introduction of Port coincided not only with England’s difficulties with France, but also with Western Europe’s rising interest in sweetness, predicated by new trade with the West Indies. The concern over durability—a long voyage from Portugal to England created many opportunities for spoilage—led many Douro shippers to steadily adopt the practice of fortification throughout the 1700s. In 1678, the year the English discovered Port, Portuguese exports accounted for only 427 tuns (one tun equals an approximate 954 liters); in 1685 the English imported 14,000 tuns. By the mid-18th century, Portuguese wine accounted for nearly two-thirds of all imported wine in England, and Port was its most desirable product.

Christiano Kopke, a German, founded the house of Kopke in 1638, four decades before the first recorded shipment of Porto to England, but the English market drove the wine’s fame and popularity. The English had established the Douro houses Warre & Co., Croft and Taylor’s by 1700, and in the decades after the Treaty of Methuen the English appetite for Douro wines grew rapaciously. The houses in Douro simply could not meet demand and many resorted to fraudulent practices to satisfy English thirsts: merchants aromatized wines, added excessive amounts of sugar and alcohol, and achieved deeper color with the addition of elderberry—a technique perhaps borrowed from the Champenoise. The English reacted with their wallets, and in the 1740s and 1750s the price of Port in England dropped precipitously. To restore English confidence and protect its own economic interests, the Portuguese government created the Companhia Geral dos Vinhos do Alto Douro, or Douro Wine Company. Charged with eliminating fraud and installing regulatory measures, the Douro Wine Company formally established the boundaries and practices of the Douro appellation in 1756. The Douro Wine Company developed a methodology for grading Port vineyards and authorized each individual farmer’s production allotment relative to the vineyard’s grade. Between 1758 and 1761, the 335 best vineyards were classified as feitoria and marked with stones, signifying fruit reserved for the English market. Lesser vineyards (rama) provided domestic wines. Although the reputation of the wine was saved, the British merchants—many of whom were responsible for perpetrating fraud in the first place—forfeited a measure of control over the trade. The Douro Wine Company now regulated grape prices, fixed pricing on the finished wines, managed exports and monopolized the sale of Portuguese brandy (aguardente) used in the fortification process. The company, whose dual role as a regulator and a shipper of wine caused stern criticism, survives as the Royal Oporto Wine Company, but its regulatory functions were lost over time. Today, the government-run Douro Port Wine Institute (IVDP) manages the appellation and its regulations.

As Port became the favored Portuguese wine in England, Madeira’s British wine merchants developed a prosperous colonial trade—particularly with the English North American colonies and Brazil. By the middle of the 18th century, most Madeira wine was fortified to sustain its character over the long passage at sea, but a curious transformation occurred: as the pipes of Madeira completed their transatlantic voyage through the tropics, they were subject to wide temperature fluctuations, which heated and oxidized the contents, resulting in a distinctive character. Ship captains were even persuaded to use Madeira pipes as ballast, and Vinhos ao Roda—wines that had undergone the torna viagem (round trip) across the Atlantic, or to the East Indies and back—sold for much higher prices than Vinhos Canteiro, the wines that matured on the island. Although the estufagem process began to replace the lengthy voyage in the early 1800s, a few wines were deliberately, if impractically, matured at sea until the 1900s.

Attributed by Shakespeare as the liquid in which the Duke of Clarence was sentenced to be drowned in, in 1478, fulfilling his sentence for treason against the King of England, a glass of Madeira was raised to commemorate both the signing of the Declaration of Independence and George Washington’s inauguration. The first President supposedly drank a pint of Madeira daily, and as colonial troops and Americans loyal to the crown fled the newborn country after the Revolutionary War, they took their love of the wine to England with them. Madeira, Port—which provided half of England’s wine in 1800—and the wines of Portugal in general reached their apex in the marketplace by the first decade of the 19th century.

The French and Spanish invaded Portugal in 1807 to disrupt the country’s trade with England, and although vineyards themselves sustained relatively little damage, the production quality and prices were greatly affected, signaling new doubts abroad about the integrity of the wines. After Napoleon’s defeat and exile, Britain reopened trade with the European Continent and Portuguese wines steadily lost market share to French and Spanish wines, and even beer. Spanish Sherry replaced Port as England’s fortified wine of choice by the late 1800s. Portuguese producers attempted to replace losses in the waning British market with monopolistic controls over Portugal’s New World colonies, but these markets were steadily lost to independence movements. The American Civil War of 1861-1865 portended a significant decline in imports of Madeira wines—and a newly energized Russian market would provide only a temporary respite, reduced by revolution in the early 20th century. Powdery and downy mildew both struck Portugal in the 1850s, and phylloxera entered the Douro in 1867. The cumulative effect was devastative—only Colares, near Lisboa, was spared from the root louse. Portugal turned inward.

Many vineyards were not replanted in the wake of phylloxera; during this time the cork industry took root in Portugal, and the country remains one of the foremost suppliers of cork closures for the wine industry. In the early 20th century, Portugal moved to protect its wine-producing regions, establishing Região Demarcada status for Madeira, Dão, Vinho Verde, and other areas by 1929. However, Portugal experienced great political upheaval throughout the early 20th century, silenced in 1932 by the inception of nearly four decades of authoritarian, right-wing rule. In 1937, the Junta Nacional do Vinhos was founded, revamping the Portuguese wine industry and consolidating small vineyards into a network of larger co-operatives. As under other European autocratic regimes, the quality of wine suffered. Alongside Port, two commercial brands of sweet, semi-sparkling rosé—Mateus and Lancers—became the face of Portuguese wine worldwide after World War II. Portugal finally began to transition to democracy with a left-leaning military coup in 1974, followed by its admission into the EU in 1986. With EU membership, Portugal’s co-operatives lost their monopolistic power, and government grants and foreign investment began to pour into the country. Many small estates (quintas) severed their ties with co-operatives and started making their own wines. Portugal devised a new appellation system in line with EU standards, designating Regiões Demarcadas as Denominação de Origem Controlada (DOC). In late 2009, the DOCs were additionally classified as Denominação de Origem Protegida (DOP), in order to maintain EU protection. Port remains the world’s most prestigious fortified wine, yet Portugal’s producers, in the Douro and elsewhere, have a number of distinctive, native varieties to explore and refine for table wines. Like Spain, many of Portugal’s wines can compete with New World examples for ripeness and fruit, yet they maintain a unique identity. Despite the country’s rich heritage of storied fortified wines, Portugal is quickly creating a new tradition of vibrant table wines.

Portuguese Wine Classifications and Grape Varieties

To maintain eligibility for protection in the EU, Portugal has broadly reclassified its quality wines as either Denominação de Origem Protegida (DOP) or Indicação Geogràfica Protegida (IGP). DOP is the superior classification and it includes all Denominação de Origem Controlada (DOC) wines. There are currently 31 DOPs. If the nomenclature for a DOC was altered for the coinciding DOP in order to meet EU standards, the traditional DOC may be used within Portugal. Theoretically DOP is the equivalent of the French AOP, and may apply to wines and other foods worthy of a protected designation. Individual legislation for each DOP wine prescribes allowed styles, maximum yields, minimum alcohol content, and aging requirements, if applicable. Indicação de Proveniencia Regulamentada (IPR) has been eliminated as an official category, and former IPRs have been upgraded to DOP status.

The lower, or less stringent, tier of quality wines in Portugal is the Indicação Geogràfica (IG), or wines with “geographical indication”. These wines are considered IGP for the purposes of EU protection, or Vinhos Regional (VR) if traditionally labeled within Portugal. All wines in this category must include a minimum 85% of grapes grown in the stated region. A wide range of grape varieties is permitted in each IGP, and a minimum alcohol content is stipulated. IGP or VR wines are often produced in DOP regions, but fail—or their winemakers choose not—to meet all of the DOP requirements. There are fourteen IGPs in Portugal: Minho, Transmontano, Duriense, Terras do Dão, Terras de Cister, Terras da Beira, Beira Atlântico, Tejo, Lisboa, Alentejano, Península de Setúbal, Algarve, Terras Madeirenses, and Açores. Wine produced in Portugal that does not meet any of the above criteria is considered Vinhos de Mesa, or simply Vinho—table wine.

If produced as vintage-dated DOP or IGP, Portuguese table wines may be labeled as garrafeira (“private wine cellar”), indicating a minimum period of aging prior to release. Tinto (red) garrafeira wines must age for a minimum 36 months, including at least 12 months in bottle. Branco (white) and rosado garrafeira wines must age for a minimum 12 months with at least 6 in bottle. The vintage garrafeira Port style as pioneered by Niepoort has a separate connotation: Wines that are aged in cask for at least 4 years, maximum 8 years, with an additional minimum 15 years in a glass container. Still Portuguese table wines of designated origin may also be labeled reserva, indicating an alcohol content of at least 0.5% higher than the legal minimum established by the respective DOP or IGP; however, stricter requirements in individual DOPs may supersede this standard. For traditional method sparkling wines, reserva instead indicates a minimum period of 12 months on the lees prior to dégorgement. Colheita Seleccionada indicates a minimum 1% higher alcohol content than that established by the regional appellation. All of these terms may be applied to wines produced in any of Portugal’s demarcated regions.

Until recently, the most widely grown red casta (“grape variety”) in Portugal was Castelão, an adaptable variety producing typically full-bodied, tannic wines with meaty, red-fruit aromas. J.M. da Fonseca, whose sister company produced the hugely popular mid-20th-century brand Lancers, brought the Castelão grape from Tejo to Terras do Sado (now the Península de Setúbal), where they began bottling the grape under the “Periquita” brand. The brand was a great success, leading other producers to adopt the “Periquita” moniker as a synonym for the grape—a convention that J.M. da Fonseca successfully contested in court.

Although its cultivation is not as widespread as Castelão, Touriga Nacional is perhaps Portugal’s finest red casta. Touriga Nacional, a variety cherished for Port blends, accounts for approximately 10% of the nation’s vineyard acreage, and yields inky, full-bodied, structured wines. Despite originating in the Dão, Touriga Nacional has been supplanted by Jaen (Mencía) in plantings in the region, and it only represents a small proportion of the Douro’s total acreage. The low-yielding vine produces extremely small berries, valued for their extraction potential and concentration in the red table blends of Dão, Douro, and Alentejo. The country’s premium red table wines often contain a percentage of Touriga Nacional, lavishly treated to new French oak in the manner of Bordeaux. Synonyms include Bical Tinto and Mortágua Preto.

As of 2025, Aragonez (Tinta Roriz, known as Tempranillo in Spain) has the highest acreage under vine, followed by Touriga Franca. Castelão, Touriga Nacional, Trincadeira (Tinta Amarela), and Baga are other widely cultivated and promising red grape varieties in Portugal.

Fernão Pires, known as Maria Gomes in Bairrada, is the most planted white casta in the country. The early-ripening, aromatic grape is found throughout Portugal, but it is concentrated in Bairrada and the southern plains of Tejo. It is a workhorse, producing fairly simple, honeyed wines that are often prone to oxidation and low acidity. Nobler white wines are produced from the Encruzado grape in the Dão, an elegant, balanced grape yielding floral and citrusy wines that gain complex nutty, resinous aromas with age. Oak is sometimes implemented in fermentation. Arinto, one of Portugal’s oldest indigenous varieties, produces lively, mineral-tinged whites and is grown throughout the country, although its most striking examples issue from the coastal regions, and from Bucelas in particular. The aromatic, tropical Antão Vaz is one of the most important white grapes in Alentejano, and Alvarinho (Spain’s Albariño) is highly regarded by the producers of Vinho Verde. One of Portugal's most thrilling indigenous white varieties is Sercial, a highly acidic grape prized for dry Madeira and known as Esgana Cão—the “dog strangler"—on the mainland. It is often confused with its homophone Cercial, which is used in Dão, Douro and Bairrada blends, but the two white grapes are genetically distinct.

Minho and Vinho Verde

Located in the northwestern corner of the country, the Minho IGP and Vinho Verde DOP share exact geographical boundaries. A cool, rainy, Atlantic-influenced climate prevails, and grey rot can be problematic during the damp growing season. Traditionally, vines in the region have been trained high off the ground in a system called enforcado. Vines would grow up the trunks of trees, telephone poles, and stakes, creating an overhead canopy. The probability of fungal disease in the wet climate is thus lessened, and other crops are grown beneath the grapes in the densely farmed region, yet the method has been displaced by more modern trellising systems, and fewer than 10% of vines are today trained in this fashion.

Vinho Verde—“green wine,” a reference to the wines’ youthful freshness and the verdant countryside—is the largest DOP in Portugal and represents around 15% of the nation’s total vineyard acreage, producing red, white, and rosado wines from an assortment of grapes. The region’s nearly 24,000 hectares of vineyards stretch northward from the city of Oporto to the Spanish border (the Minho River), and share lush landscape features and some grape varieties with Rías Baixas, Vinho Verde’s neighbor to the north. Gentle slopes of shallow granitic soils are predominant, although steeper, terraced vineyards are common in the mountains further inland. Loureiro is the region's most heavily planted white grape and the primary component of traditional Vinho Verde blends. Other white grapes include Trajadura (Treixadura), Avesso, Pedernã (Arinto), and the Spanish Albariño. Known as Alvarinho in Portugal, the grape is chiefly bottled as a varietal wine near the northern town of Monção, situated directly across the Minho River from Rías Baixas' Condado do Tea region. Monção e Melgaço Alvarinho remains a bright spot for quality in a region driven by high yields and mass production. Red and rosado wines, produced from grapes like Vinhão, Espadeiro, Borraçal, and Alvarelhão, represent a minority of exports. The light, floral white wines of the region are more common in both Europe and the US and are marked by lively acidity and low alcohol levels, and are slightly sparkling—a result, generally, of carbon dioxide injection prior to bottling. The red wines, also pétillant, gain their sparkle from malolactic fermentation in the bottle, a process usually avoided for white wines. The wines, whether white or red, are at their best in the year after release.

Transmontano

Transmontano IGP is located to the east of Minho along the Spanish border to the north of Duriense. Within the region are three non-contiguous subregions of the Trás-os-Montes DOP: Chaves, Valpaços, and Planalto Mirandés. The region is dry, hot, and mountainous, and the resulting wines are typically ripe and full-bodied, although the cooler, higher-altitude vineyards can preserve acidity. Important red grapes include Touriga Nacional, Tinta Roriz, Bastardo (Trousseau), Touriga Francesa and Trincadeira. Fernão Pires, Síria, Viosinho, Gouveio, Malvasia Fina and Rabigato are the most planted white grapes. Douro and Porto were once included in the region, prior to the creation of the Duriense IGP.

Duriense: Douro and Porto

The Duriense IGP is a slender region that encompasses the eastern, mountainous Douro River Valley south of Transmontano. It includes the DOPs of Douro and Porto. The Douro is Portugal’s first demarcated wine region—one of the first such appellations recognized in Europe—and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The river and its tributaries carve deep valleys through the granite Marão and Montemuro Mountains, and vineyards run from the riverside up the terraced, precipitous slopes. Schist, the preferred soil type for Port, is in abundance throughout the zone, often broken up by the actions of man. The Douro Valley experiences a continental climate of severely hot summers and cold winters, when temperatures often dip below freezing. The region’s craggy mountains act as barriers to the humid Atlantic winds, and the Douro becomes progressively drier toward the Spanish border. There are three subzones in Douro; Baixo Corgo to the west has the highest density of plantings, Cima Corgo has the highest total vineyard acreage, and Douro Superior, which stretches to the Spanish border, is the largest, most arid, and most sparsely planted region in Douro. Table wines and the occasional licoroso (fortified) Moscatel do Douro are produced as Douro DOP; fortified Port from the Douro region is released as Porto DOP. Approximately 50% of the region’s wine is released as Porto.

Vineyards along the Douro River.

Douro table wines may be red, white, or rosado. The list of approved grape varieties of either color is extensive, but the best red wines are usually produced from Touriga Nacional, Touriga Franca, Tinta Roriz, Tinta Cão, and Tinta Barroca. These grapes are equally suited to Port production, although clonal choices and preferred mesoclimates may differ for table wines. White varieties include Malvasia Fina, Viosinho, Rabigato, and Gouveio. Both white and red wines may be simple, fruity and fresh, or subject to new oak treatment and higher degrees of sophistication and polish in the winery. Moscatel Galego is used for fortified Moscatel wines, which may carry an age designation in the manner of tawny Port. In the Douro, reserva wines must achieve a minimum alcohol of 11.5% or 12% for white and rosado wines or red wines, respectively, instead of the standard minimum 10.5% (white/rosado) or 11% (red) for the appellation. White reserva wines must be aged for six months; red reserva wines must be aged for one year. The IVDP must certify all Douro wines; those that meet reserva criteria and score exceptionally well in blind tasting analysis may use the term grande reserva. Espumanto do Douro (sparkling wines) and Colheita Tardia (late harvest wines) may be produced as Douro DOP.

Although the Minho region separates the Douro DOP from seaside Oporto (Porto), the major port houses have historically used the port city as a commercial nexus for the trade. In the past, the houses would transport Port casks in Barco Rabelo ships from Pinhão in the Cima Corgo downriver to Vila Nova de Gaia, a suburb of Oporto for maturation in their lodges. Until 1986, when membership in the EU disrupted the monopolistic demands of the Port trade, all Port wines were required by law to be aged and shipped from Vila Nova de Gaia. Removing such restrictions has enabled a new generation of small quintas to produce and ship Port and table wines from their premises in the Douro. The 1990s witnessed the birth of a number of smaller estates. Nonetheless, the larger Port houses and shippers are responsible for establishing the phenomenon of dry Douro table wines. Casa Ferreirinha, a house now under the ownership of Sogrape, launched Barca Velha in 1952, pioneering the style. The Port houses of Niepoort, Quinta do Crasto and Ramos Pinto are at the forefront of the table wine revolution. The 270-hectare Douro Superior estate Quinta do Vale Meão, formerly the primary source of fruit for Barca Velha, has established itself as one of the region’s young cult stars.

(For further information on the viticulture, production process, and categories of Porto DOP wines, please refer to the Compendium.)

Beiras and Terras do Dão

The traditional province of Beiras lies south of Duriense and Minho, spanning the entire width of Portugal, from the fertile littoral coast to the mountainous interior. Until early 2011, a single IGP represented the entire region, but Portuguese authorities dismantled the expansive zone, dividing its territory among four new IGPs: Terras do Dão, Terras de Cister, Terras da Beira, and Beira Atlântico. Dão DOP and Lafões DOP lie within the newly unveiled Terras do Dão IGP, which borders Minho IGP to the north and claims a large swath of the central, inland territory formerly assigned to Beiras IGP. Bairrada DOP is located within Beira Atlântico, a coastal IGP with one designated subzone, Terras do Sicó. Távora-Varosa DOP, a center of sparkling wine production, is a small appellation immediately south of the Douro River and north of Terras do Dão. It is located within the Terras de Cister IGP, the "land of the Cistercians," another reminder of the medieval Church's influence in spreading the vine. Beira Interior DOP is a larger appellation near the Spanish border, within the Terras da Beira IGP. Despite its size, the region has relatively few growers, and much of the winemaking is performed by cooperatives. Beira Interior contains three subzones: Beira Castelo Rodrigo, Cova da Beira, and Pinhel.

Some of Portugal’s best dry reds are produced in Dão DOP. Dão’s producers have worked to emphasize freshness and fragrance from the 1990s forward. Although it has been eclipsed in volume of acreage, Touriga Nacional is a signature component of Dão blends; the wines are typically more elegant, sharper, and more floral than their counterparts in the Douro. Sheltered by three mountain ranges, the Dão is partially protected from the harsh winds of the continental interior, yet insulated from the wet, cool maritime weather systems coming in from the coast. Ultimately, the region is hot and dry in the growing season, but receives adequate rainfall in the cold winter months. Altitude helps to preserve acidity, and the best vineyards are often located between 400 and 500 meters above sea level, where the preferred granitic soils are in abundance. The Dão is not densely planted: approximately 5% of the total region is utilized for viticulture. There are seven subregions, each with distinct mesoclimates: Serra da Estrela (named for Portugal’s highest mountain range), Alva, Besteiros, Castendo, Silgueiros, Terras de Azurara, and Terras de Senhorim. Dão wines may be red, white, rosado or espumante; but red wines account for over three-quarters of the total output. Recommended red grapes are Touriga Nacional, Jaen, Touriga Franca, Alfrocheiro, Aragonez, Bastardo, Rufete, Trincadeira, and Tinta Cão. Recommended white grapes include (but are not limited to) Encruzado, Bical, and Cercial. A number of other grapes are additionally “authorized” but not recommended. Finally, certain experimental grapes, such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Sémillon, can be utilized but may not comprise more than 40% of a blend.

Dão producers may label their wines as garrafeira according to the standard aging regimen, but the minimum abv is increased to 11.5% (from 11%). Red wines may be labeled as reserva with two years of aging, whereas whites must be aged for only six months to qualify. Both red and white Dão wines may be labeled nobre (“noble”), provided certain requirements are met. Red nobre wines must contain a minimum 15% Touriga Nacional and at most 85% of combined Jaen, Rufete, Alfrocheiro, and Aragonez. Red nobre wines must undergo a minimum three years aging prior to release and contain a minimum 13% alcohol. White nobre wines must contain a minimum 15% Encruzado and a maximum 85% of Cercial, Bical, Malvasia Fina, and Verdelho. They undergo one year of aging prior to release and must contain a minimum 12% alcohol.

To the west of Dão, Bairrada DOP experiences a milder, rainier climate. Like Dão, Bairrada predominantly produces red wines, although white and rosado wines are authorized. The late-ripening, notoriously astringent Baga, the main red grape of the region, thrives in the barros (clay) soils, whereas white grapes, including Maria Gomes and Arinto, are usually planted in sandier soils. Red wines are typically blends, featuring Baga along with grapes such as the native Touriga Nacional, Camarate, Castelão, Jaen, and Alfrocheiro. While a new wave of experimentation has paved the way for the incursion of many international varieties, winemakers who remain faithful to the native grapes (and provide a minimum 12.5% abv in the case of Tinto or 12% abs for Branco, rather than the 11% required by the DOP) earn the right to label their wines as Bairrada Clássico.

Lisboa

The coastal Lisboa IGP runs southward from Beiras to Portugal’s capital city, where the Tagus River meets the Atlantic Ocean. Lisboa contains nine individual DOPs: Bucelas, Colares, Carcavelos, Arruda, Torres Vedras, Alenquer, Óbidos, Lourinhã, and Encostas d'Aire. Encostas d'Aire overlaps Alta Estremadura and Estremadura, subzones of the northern half of Lisboa IGP. Collectively, the region releases a larger volume of wine than any other in Portugal, but it has long carried a reputation of low quality, dominated by co-operatives and Vinhos de Mesa production. However, the southern DOP zones nearest the city of Lisboa have produced exemplary wines, and Alenquer and Encostas d'Aire in the north show promise. Lourinhã produces aguardente rather than wine.

The three DOPs nearest the capital—Bucelas, Colares, and Carcavelos—are slowly disappearing due to the inexorable pressures of the expanding urban population. Bucelas produces dry white wines from a minimum 75% Arinto. Colares wines may be red or white. The sandy soils of Colares provided a bulwark against phylloxera incursion, and the vines of the region were traditionally planted in trenches to protect them from the salty marine winds. The majority of Colares' red and white wines are produced, respectively, with grapes from ungrafted Ramisco and Malvasia vines. A second, harder soil type, chao rija, is located further inland in the Colares DOP, and Castelão is more frequently planted there. Carcavelos has suffered the most at the hands of suburban sprawl—only 25 hectares of vineyard remain. Red wines are produced from a combined minimum 75% Castelão and Preto Martinho, and white wines are a blend of Arinto, Galego Dourado, and Ratinho. The wines are fermented dry, then fortified and sweetened with vinho abafado, a partially fermented must preserved with alcohol. After fortification, Carcavelos wines are aged in barrel for at least two years, followed by at least six months in bottle.

Península de Setúbal

The Península de Setúbal IGP, formerly Terras do Sado, includes the DOP zones of Setúbal and Palmela, located across the wide Tagus estuary from the city of Lisboa. The IGP itself encompasses the peninsula, defined by the Tagus and Sado estuaries, and a section of the Atlantic Coast. The region’s climate is Mediterranean. Palmela DOP comprises two distinct areas: low-lying, sandy plains spreading eastward from the hilltop town of the same name, and the clay-limestone lower slopes of the Arrabida Mountains. The sandy plains provide the best terroir for Castelão, the region’s premier grape and dominant component of Palmela reds—a minimum 66.7% is stipulated. White wines are typically blended with a high proportion of Fernão Pires and Arinto. Rosado, espumante and licoroso wines are also authorized. The DOP’s rather liberal encépagement includes a number of international varieties for both red and white wine production, including Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Sémillon, Syrah, Sauvignon Blanc, Merlot, and Tannat.

The vinhos licoroso of Setúbal gained popularity in the heyday of Portugal’s fortified wine trade, benefiting—like Madeira—from the torna viagem maturation process. The region was one of the first in Portugal to be demarcated in the early 20th century (1907). Sweet white and red fortified wines are produced, from a minimum 67% Moscatel de Setúbal (Muscat d’Alexandria) or Moscatel Roxo, respectively. In keeping with EU regulations, the wine may be labeled by variety if either grape comprises a minimum 85% of the blend. The wines have a particularly pungent, floral fragrance, developed through a lengthy maceration on Muscat skins—for up to six months—following the fermentation and fortification. The wines develop a tawny, burnt orange color and raisin spice character while maturing in large wooden casks for up to five years prior to release. Some examples age for upwards of 20 years, unfolding mature molasses and caramel tones while darkening in color. J.M. da Fonseca is the appellation’s largest and most storied producer; in the company’s cellars are stocks of wine dating to the 19th century, some of which crossed the equator at sea.

Tejo and Alentejano

Both Tejo and Alentejano derive their names from the Tagus, or Tejo, River. The landlocked Tejo IGP is surrounded by Lisboa to the west, Beiras to the north, Alentejano to the east, and the Península de Setúbal to the south. The Tagus River flows through the alluvial plains of the fertile region, which, like Lisboa, is characterized by bulk production and basic quality. The IGP contains the single unrestrictive DoTejo DOP (formerly Ribatejo), in which only 1850 of the IGP’s 22,300 hectares of vineyards are included. DoTejo in turn encompasses six subregions: Coruche, Chamusca, Cartaxo, Santarém, Tomar, and Almeirim. Red, white, and rosado wines are produced from a bewildering number of native and international varieties. Castelão and Fernão Pires are the dominant red and white grapes; white wines outnumber reds.

The Alentejano IGP, covering 30% of Portugal’s landmass, borders the eastern edge of both Tejo and the Península de Setúbal, extending southward to the Atlantic Coast north of Algarve. Alentejano’s hot growing season manifests in the perennial problems of low acidity and high alcohol, and irrigation is absolutely necessary in the region’s arid plains. The Alentejo DOP within Alentejano highlights eight subzones: Moura, Granja-Amareleja, Évora, Vidigueira, Reguengos, Redondo, Borba, and Portalegre—the latter, located on the cooler, granitic slopes of the São Mamede Mountains in the northernmost sector of the DOP, is the most promising area in the region. Red wine production in Alentejo exceeds that of whites, and Trincadeira is the region’s most prominent grape. Large swaths of Quercus suber—cork trees—are widespread through the region.

Algarve

Algarve is the southernmost IGP on the Portuguese mainland. It contains four DOP zones—Lagos, Lagoa, Portimão, and Tavira—each dominated by a co-operative. Traditional grape varieties in the region include Castelão and Tinta Negra Mole for red wines, and Arinto and Síria for white wines. Algarve’s hot seaside climate is not particularly suited for the production of fine wines, and in any event resort tourism has displaced many of the region’s vineyards.

Açores

The volcanic Açores (Azores) islands are located in the middle of the Atlantic, nearly 1,000 miles from the coast of Portugal. Three of the nine islands—Pico, Graciosa, and Terceira—have DOP zones, although conditions in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean are not tremendously conducive to viticulture. The fortified white wines of Pico DOP are the most highly regarded wines of the archipelago, yet they are generally consumed locally and viticulture occupies only a sliver of the island. The island’s apex is its volcano—the highest point in Portugal at 7,500 feet above sea level. The island’s vineyards, sheltered from sea winds by walls hewn from the black volcanic stone, have been designated as a World Heritage Site. Pico DOP Licoroso wines must achieve a minimum 16% abv after fortification, and are aged for a minimum two years in barrel. Verdelho, Arinto and Terrantez are authorized for production. Biscoitos DOP, on the island of Terceira, and Graciosa DOP also produce fortified white wines from the same grapes, as well as unfortified, dry white table wines and sparkling wines.

Terras Madeirenses

The Terras Madeirenses IGP encompasses both of the inhabited isles of the subtropical Madeira archipelago: Madeira and Porto Santo. Two DOP zones, Madeira and Madeirense, cover the fortified and unfortified wines, respectively, of both islands. Madeirense wines may be red, white, or rosé. Produced from grapes as dissimilar as Verdelho, Arnsburger (a Riesling crossing developed at Geisenheim), Cabernet Sauvignon, Tinta Negra, and Syrah, they are rarely exported. Madeira wine's regulatory body, the IVBAM, operates a cooperative winemaking facility for Madeirense DOP.

For further information on the fortified wines of Madeira, click here

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Viticulture and Vinification

user22151 — Tue, 11 Feb 2025 18:15:56 GMT

Current Revision posted to Study-Guide by user22151 on 2/11/2025 6:15:56 PM

Table of Contents

Viticulture
A Year in the Vineyard
Climate, Terroir, and the Grapevine
Vine Training and Pruning
Vine Diseases and Insect Threats
Sustainable Models of Viticulture
Vinification
Red Wine Production
White Wine Production
Rosé Wine Production
Oak
The Future of Winemaking
Review Quizzes

Viticulture

Man first domesticated Vitis vinifera, the species of climbing vine responsible for fine wine production, nearly 5,000 years before the Common Era.

Viticulture, the study of grape growing, slowly developed in conjunction with the cultivation of the vine, as growers over time learned from instinct and observation. The grower or viticulturist confronts decisions on vine training and pruning methods, canopy management, fertilization and irrigation, harvest dates, and disease control; and monitors the development of the vineyard in general. From Charlemagne’s directive to plant the vineyards of Corton where the snows melt first, to the widespread adoption of rootstock grafting to combat phylloxera, to the modern embrace of drip irrigation and mechanization, advances in viticulture aim to reduce the vagaries of weather and disease, and promote either the quantity or quality of wine. Rarely are these goals of quantity and quality aligned for the viticulturist. Today, viticulture is a highly evolved science, and the development of the vine (and its transformation in the winery) is highly calculated to provide a desired character of fruit. While cold science governed many of the viticultural advancements of the last century, newer movements of sustainability have sprouted in reaction, and several distinct paths of viticulture exist for conscientious growers.

A Year in the Vineyard

The annual life cycle of the vine begins in the spring, with budbreak. The vine, which started “weeping” or “bleeding” watery sap from pruned canes sometime in February (in the Northern Hemisphere), will finally emerge from dormancy as the average air temperature surpasses 50°F. During budbreak, which usually occurs in March or April, the first small shoots and leaves will break through buds left intact by winter pruning. At this stage, the vine is vulnerable to frost. The vine’s foliage continues to develop through the early spring, and small green clusters called embryo bunches form on the shoots by mid-April. Flowering occurs six to thirteen weeks after the initial budbreak, depending on the climate.

During this period, the embryo bunches bloom into small flowers for about ten days, and the self-pollinating grapevine begins the process of fertilization, which leads to fruit set. As the vine flowers, it is extremely susceptible to the damaging effects of cold, frost, and wind. Successfully pollinated embryo bunches grow into true grape clusters during fruit set—each grape is the product of individual fertilization. Fruit set usually hovers around 30%—the remaining embryo berries “shatter,” falling from the cluster, a process also known as coulure. As the berries enlarge through July, they remain hard, high in acidity and low in sugar. Another danger that can impact yield at this time is millerandage, where some grape flowers fail to fertilize. They go on to mature at different rates; some grow ripe and large, while others stay very small and seedless.

In August, however, veraison (véraison) begins and the grapes begin to truly ripen, as sugars are moved from the leaf system to the fruit. During veraison, the grapes soften and change color—turning from green to red-black or yellow-green—and acidity decreases. While veraison swiftly affects an individual grape, it may not evenly affect a whole bunch. Some varieties, such as Zinfandel, are characterized by extremely uneven ripening (also called asynchrony), in which veraison haphazardly affects each bunch. Cane ripening occurs in tandem with veraison, as the stems on each shoot begin to lignify, accumulating carbohydrates to sustain the plant through the winter.

Once the grapes have achieved an optimal balance of sugar and acid, they are ready for harvest (vendange). Harvest, by either manual or mechanical means, begins as early as late August, and may last through the beginning of November. White grapes are generally harvested before red grapes, although some white grapes destined for the specialized botrytised dessert wines or icewine may hang on the vine until late November or December. New World winemakers have greatly advanced the idea of complete physiological ripeness—a concept of ripeness comprising not only must weight and pH, but also the ripening of tannin and other phenolics, the condition of the berry and its pulp, and seed lignification—which often requires longer “hang time” for the grapes on the vine. After harvest, work moves from the vineyard to the winery. The vines lose their leaves in the autumn, and enter a period of winter dormancy. Fertilization may be applied in the fall after harvest, and the vines will be pruned over the winter to prepare for next year’s growth. Note: For equivalent dates in southern hemisphere vineyards, add six months.

Climate, Terroir, and the Grapevine

Climate encompasses expected temperature, rainfall, sunshine, wind, and other atmospheric elements, and remains relatively stable from year to year—weather is the daily manifestation of climate, and is generally responsible for vintage variation. For temperature, the vine prefers a mean annual level between 50° and 68°F, with an ideal of 57°F. To successfully ripen, red grapes require an average summer temperature of approximately 70°F, whereas white grapes prefer an average of 66°F. This generally restricts viticulture to the temperate bands of latitude between 30° and 50° in both the northern and southern hemispheres. Certain pockets of viticulture exist, due to privileged exposures and climatic conditions, outside of these general bands of latitude, and climate change may expand the grapevine’s habitat in the coming years. One method of classifying climates solely by temperature—and therefore recommending varieties appropriate to that temperature—is the California Heat Summation Index (also known as the Winkler Index). This scale divides climates into five Regions based on the number of degree days. Degree days are calculated by multiplying the days in each month of the growing season (defined as April 1 through October 31) by the mean number of degrees over 50°F for that month. The months’ totals are then added together to arrive at the heat summation:

Degree Days
Region Ia	1,500-2,000° days F (850-1,111° days C)
Region Ib	2,000-2,500° days F (1,111-1389° days C)
Region II	2,500-3,000° days F (1,389-1,667° days C)
Region III	3,000-3,500° days F (1,667-1,944° days C)
Region IV	3,500-4,000° days F (1,944-2,222° days C)
Region V	4,000-4,900° days F (2,222-2,700° days C)

Temperature and sunshine are closely related. Sunshine, a requirement for photosynthesis—in which plants convert carbon dioxide into organic compounds, including sugars—is a necessary provider of both light and heat. The minimum amount of sunshine required to support viticulture is approximately 1,300 hours. As sunshine during the growing season increases the farther one moves away from the equator, vines in the cooler climates often enjoy more sunshine than vines in the warmer climates. Cloud cover will not greatly impact the transmission of light for the purposes of photosynthesis, but it will affect the amount of heat the sun bestows on a vine. Rainfall itself is another primary concern. The vine evolved as a drought-resistant plant, but it still requires approximately 10-30 inches of rainfall annually to produce an adequate crop, depending on the warmth of the climate. Irrigation can of course supplant actual rainfall in regions where its usage is legal. Many Mediterranean winegrowing regions receive an abundance of rain in winter and spring, and remain mostly dry through the summer—an ideal situation for the vine. If the vine receives too little rain, water stress will occur, a condition that promotes smaller berry size and yields but will lead to interrupted ripening and complete shutdown of the vine if the stress is too severe. Too much rain will not adversely affect the vine itself, but it will dilute fruit quality and create a friendly environment for fungal diseases. Wind, a final consideration of climate, is often a detriment to the vine if it blows persistently hard. At its most violent extreme, wind can undermine flowering and denude vines. In colder climates, wind chill can be especially devastating. On the other hand, wind can be a detriment to mold and mildew, and wind machines are often employed in the battle against frost to mix colder, settled air near the ground with warmer upper air.

The French concept of terroir is often cited as a word with no direct English equivalent, but it has an umbrella of meaning: terroir, in a holistic sense, defines the complete system of the living vine. The concept of terroir comprises the choice of grapevine as it relates to its location, topography, soil, climate, and the hand of man upon it. Terroir is not only the soil; terroir is the entire system of factors that influence the development of the vine—factors that, depending on the style of viticulture and wine-making applied, may be magnified or subsumed in the resulting wine.

Terroir begins with the vine’s macroclimate: the regional climate. Macroclimate varies in size depending on the factors affecting it: the Rheingau, on a single south-facing slope, and the Médoc, with its even landscape and constant maritime influence, are subject to single macroclimates. However, the Napa Valley may be divided into several distinct macroclimates between the different peaks and valley floor. One can draw broad assertions about a region’s suitability for viticulture from its macroclimate, but the subtler distinctions of mesoclimate—the climate of a particular vineyard—are of greater importance. At this level, the aspect (degree and direction of its slope) and shelter of a vineyard are essential to distinctions in mesoclimate. Slopes provide good drainage and may benefit from increased sunshine, but temperature falls steadily with added altitude. Mesoclimates are small: one must realistically speak of several in Corton, the largest grand cru vineyard in Burgundy, whereas La Tâche has a single mesoclimate. On an even smaller scale, microclimate refers to the climate in and around a vine canopy, the restricted space including all parts of the vine above the ground. Techniques of canopy management have been developed to adjust the microclimate of a vine, particularly in its exposure to sunshine and its eventual yield. These include winter pruning, leaf removal, shoot positioning, and the use of sophisticated trellising systems—man’s hand at work in the equation of terroir.

Soil type is a major aspect of a vine’s success. In general, low-fertility soils produce better wines than rich soils, the latter being better suited for other types of agriculture. Conventional wisdom holds that the vine should always struggle to produce good fruit; that too much vigor results in commonplace wine. Well-drained, easily penetrable soils with good water-retention are desirable, as they permit the vine to dig deeply for water and minerals. The heat-retaining (and reflecting) character of a particular soil is also an important factor, especially in correlation with climate. High soil pH, common in limestone-rich soils, contributes to higher acidity (low pH) in grapes, and although such soils are typically inhospitable to most agriculture, viticulture thrives. Soil acidity (low pH) can, on the other hand, be a deterrent to viticulture. This can be countered by the application of lime.

The choice of grapevine is inextricably linked to its terroir: would the terroir of Burgundy not be fundamentally altered if Pinot Noir was suddenly replaced with another grape? When a new vineyard is planted, the grower not only chooses the grape variety he or she desires, but also the specific clone or clones of that variety that best express the desired character. Clones, identical genetic reproductions of a single vine, are selected for a host of different attributes in both the field and the wine: disease resistance, hardiness, yield, aromatics, structure, and color are among the qualities to consider when selecting a clone. Once a vineyard is established, the grower may choose to propagate the vines by either clonal selection or mass selection (selection massale). The latter method, popular in Burgundy, enables the grower to select budwood for replanting from a number of vines throughout the vineyard, rather than single clones. In mass selection, a grower will attempt to reinforce positive traits and eliminate negative traits through appropriate selection—and while the results may be less precise than those gained through clonal selection, a broader genetic diversity is maintained. The budwood selection, or scion, is then usually grafted onto separate rootstock. Although some modern vineyards are still planted on their own rootstock, most of the world’s vines are grafted to American rootstock. Phylloxera, detailed under “Vine Diseases and Insect Threats” below, ravaged most of the world’s vineyards in the late 19th century. Salvation came in the form of lowly American grapevine species—Vitis riparia and others—that were highly resistant to the root louse. A grower may select a particular rootstock not just for its resistance to phylloxera, but also its ability to withstand other diseases and drought, its tolerance to salt and lime, and/or its effect on vine vigor. The combination of clonal and rootstock selection will have a great impact on the character and health of the vine.

Once grafted and planted, the vine will not usually produce a crop of grapes suitable for harvest until its third year. In many European appellations, growers are prohibited from harvesting grapes for wine until the vine is at least three years old. By its sixth year, the grapevine is considered mature; shoot growth and the vine’s annual yield, in the absence of major stresses, stabilize. The root system will grow to maturity by the tenth year, although poorer soils will slow growth. The yield of many commercial vineyards will begin to decline after 20 years, and vineyards are often uneconomical to maintain after 50 years of age. However, exceptional old vine plantings of a century or more of age exist, producing small yields but highly concentrated fruit. Old vine plantings of Rhône varieties in Australia and Zinfandel in California are especially valued.

Vine Training and Pruning

Head trained spur pruned Zinfandel.

The objective of vine training, which includes the processes of pruning, shaping, and trellising the vine, is to maximize the vine’s performance in local conditions and to keep its canes from touching the ground and establishing new roots. The grapevine does not have a self-supporting structure, and must often be tethered to another apparatus: a tree, stake, or a wire trellis. The type of trellis or support varies according to the manner in which the vine is trained. In addition, the principles of canopy management are voiced through the selection of a training system. Most vines can be classified as either head-trained or cordon-trained. In cordon training, the vine has at least one permanent cane that extends from the trunk, called an arm or cordon. It grows thick and gnarled over time, and fruit-bearing shoots will emerge from it each season. Head-trained vines have no permanent cordon, and the trunk ends in a knob, or head. Cordon-trained vines generally require a trellising system, whereas head-trained vines may be supported by a simple stake, or not at all. Although head-trained vines may technically be trellised (see the Guyot training system, below), head-training is commonly asserted as an alternative to trellising, synonymous with bush vines.

Head-trained vines may be spur-pruned or cane-pruned, whereas cordon-trained vines are spur-pruned. If left on the vine, a green shoot (fruiting cane) will harden to become a woody cane after a season—along the cane are a number of buds, which will each produce a shoot during spring budbreak. The spur is a cane cut back to two buds. If a vine is spur-pruned, the upper cane growing from a spur will be removed during winter pruning, and the lower cane growing from the same spur will be cut back to two buds, creating a new spur. Thus, each spur will produce two fruiting canes each year, one of which will become the following year’s spur. Cordon-trained vines contain several spurs along the length of the arm. In its simplest form, cane pruning requires the grower to retain one spur and one cane. The number of buds left on the cane may range from six to over a dozen, and European appellation systems often establish a maximum number for each grape. The buds on the two-year-old cane each release shoots that will produce a season’s fruit, and the entire two-year-old main cane and its fruiting canes are removed after the growing season. In its place, one of the one-year-old canes from the spur is selected and retained to become the following season’s main cane. Although cane-pruning is usually only used on head-trained vines, some growers occasionally merge the style with cordon-training, retaining a “kicker cane” along an otherwise spur-trained cordon.

VSP in New Zealand.

One of the most basic systems of cane-pruning/head-training is the Guyot system, developed in the 1860 by Jules Guyot. The Guyot system requires a vertical trellis on which the canes can be suspended, and has one spur and one main two-year-old cane. The double Guyot variant supports two main canes, extending outward from the trunk on opposite sides. The simplest form of spur-pruning/head-training is the Gobelet system, an ancient technique common in the Southern Rhône and Southern Italy, wherein the vine, often unsupported, resembles a goblet, with each year’s fruiting canes extending from the spur-pruned, shortened arms atop the trunk. In Italy the Gobelet system is known as albarello; in Spain, en vaso. Australians often refer to such vines as bush vines. One of the simplest spur-pruned/cordon-trained systems is the Cordon de Royat, the preferred training style for Pinot Noir in Champagne. The Cordon de Royat system is similar to the Guyot system, with a single spur-pruned permanent cordon extending horizontally from the trunk, rather than a two-year-old cane. The spur-pruned/cordon-trained Geneva system and a close variant, the Lyre system, are more complicated, as cordons extend outward from the trunk in a flat “U” shape, creating a divided canopy. Vertical Shoot Positioning (VSP), a trellising system, may be used for either cane-pruned or spur-pruned vines. The Tendone system, known as pergola in Italy and enforcado in Portugal, is an alternative training system in which the vines are trained upward and overhead along wooden frames or trees, enabling workers to pass underneath. Tendone vines may be either spur- or cane-pruned. This list is by no means exhaustive; many other styles and combinations of training systems exist.

Vine Diseases and Insect Threats

Diseases that affect the vine can be broadly categorized into four main groups: fungal, viral, bacterial, and phytoplasma. Fungal diseases manifest as mildew or mold and are typically associated with warm and damp climates, attacking either the root system or the canopy of the grapevine. Fungal spores are spread by wind and rain and a disease, once entrenched in a vine, may infect an entire vineyard. Some of the most worrisome fungal diseases—including powdery and downy mildew—originated in America, arriving in Europe on cuttings in the 19th century. Fungal diseases, while problematic in the past, can be successfully controlled—if not wholly eradicated—through fungicide sprays and other applications. Bacterial diseases are less common but are difficult to control and can be extremely devastating to the health of the vine. Viral diseases, spread through grafting or transmitted by insects, are often less immediately destructive than bacterial diseases, yet there is no known cure for many common viruses affecting grapevines. Infected vines experience a shortened lifespan, reduced yields and a changed quality of fruit. Viral diseases are controlled through removal and appropriate selection for propagation. Phytoplasma diseases are caused by phytoplasmas, pathogens similar to bacteria, yet they are symptomatically similar to viral diseases and, like viruses, must be spread through an insect vector or rootstock grafting. Phytoplasma diseases, known as grapevine yellows, were first recorded in Europe in the mid-1990s, and may cause widespread difficulties in the 21st century.

One of the most historically important and devastating blights on the vine is not a disease at all, but an infestation: phylloxera. The tiny Daktulosphaira vitifoliae (originally called Phylloxera vastatrix), an aphid that feeds on the roots of vines, is native to the Eastern United States, but it quickly spread through Europe from cuttings imported to the Southern Rhône Valley in the early 1860s, and is now present in all of the world’s major winegrowing countries—with the notable exception of Chile. Phylloxera will kill vines by destroying its root system, and its arrival in Europe swelled fears of a total collapse of viticulture. Most of the world’s Vitis vinifera vines are today grafted onto native American vine rootstocks, which are naturally resistant to the phylloxera root louse. Sandier soils, such as those found in Colares in Portugal, act as a natural barrier, impeding the spread of phylloxera. Other insects—mealy bugs, nematodes, and glassy-winged sharpshooters—act as carriers, or vectors, of disease, and their appearance in the vineyard may be a harbinger of a coming infection.

Fungal Diseases

Powdery Mildew (Oidium): Native to North America, the Uncinula necator fungus has spread worldwide, and thrives in humid climates even without precipitation—rainfall is actually a detriment to the survival of its spores. The fungus, during its anamorph stage, is known as Oidium tuckerii. Powdery mildew affects all green parts of the plant, marking grapes, leaves, and shoots with its dusty white mildew growth. It prefers densely shaded canopies and overcast weather, and greatly inhibits bunch development and ripening. If infected prior to flowering, yields will be reduced; if infected after fruit set, berries will struggle to achieve veraison and reach full size. Fruit affected by powdery mildew is universally avoided in the winemaking process, as it creates off-flavors in the wine. Powdery mildew, first recorded in England in 1847, spread quickly throughout the Vitis vinifera vineyards of Europe but was soon controlled by applications of sulfur and other fungicides.
Downy Mildew (Peronospora): Another fungal disease that emigrated to Europe on North American vine cuttings, downy mildew spread rampantly through France and the rest of Europe in the early 1880s. Plasmopara viticola, the agent of downy mildew, attacks the green portions of the vine, causing leaves to drop off the vine and limiting the vine’s ability to photosynthesize. The infection is first visible as an oil spot on vine leaves. As spores germinate a white, cottony growth develops on the underside of the leaves. The fungus survives the winter on fallen leaves in the soil, and its spores reach the vine again with the help of rain splatter in the spring. Arid regions prohibit its growth. The blue-staining Bordeaux Mixture, a spray of copper sulfate, water and lime, was developed by 1885 to prevent outbreaks of downy mildew.
Eutypa Dieback: Also called dead arm, the disease is caused by the Eutypa lata fungus. Spores are carried by rain and enter the vine through pruning wounds. Common in Mediterranean climates, the disease is difficult to control as it affects a wide number of plants. Infected vines experience stunted shoot growth as the fungus releases toxins, and eventually an infected cane may die—the dead arm. This disease has a drastic effect on yield, but does not devalue the quality of the crop. In fact, Australia’s d’Arenberg ascribes a beneficial effect on quality to the dead arm, and markets its icon Shiraz under the disease’s nickname. A separate fungus, Phomopsis viticola, manifests as a similar disease.
Esca (Black Measles): One of the earliest known fungal grapevine diseases, Esca thrives in warmer climates but exists worldwide, and there is no known control or cure. Unlike other fungal diseases, Esca is the result of a complex of fungi, rather than a single organism. On young vines, the disease will weaken growth, affect berry development and discolor leaves; in hot weather an affected young vine may suddenly die. In older vines, the disease affects the wood, causing the interior of the trunk and arms to soften and rot from the inside—a condition that led ancient Romans to use Esca-infected tree trunks for firewood, as its spongy interior quickly caught fire. Mature, Esca-infected vines will rarely live past 30 years of age. The disease is exacerbated by rainfall and can be spread by wind or on the pruning shears of careless vineyard workers.
Black Rot: Native to North America, Black Rot spread to Europe with the importation of phylloxera-resistant rootstocks in the late 1800s. The disease is caused by the Guignardia bidwelli fungus, originating as a black spot on the vine’s shoots, leaves, and berries. Although yield reductions can be disastrous if unchecked, the disease can be controlled through fungicide sprays.
Bunch Rot: Bunch rot is a grouping of similar diseases caused by a number of fungi species. In general, bunch rots reduce crop yields and may adversely affect the character of the wine, imbuing it with moldy off-flavors. One of the most common forms of bunch rot is Botrytis bunch rot. Known in its malevolent form as grey rot, the Botrytis cinerea fungus will break down the skin of berries and allow other yeasts and bacteria to rot the grapes. It spreads quickly throughout vineyards. However, if the fungus invades healthy white grapes under favorable conditions, it will instead result in the noble rot, a precondition for some of the world’s greatest sweet wines. Botrytis bunch rot requires warm weather and humidity of at least 90% to germinate.

Bacterial Diseases

Pierce’s Disease: Caused by the bacterium Xylella fastidiosa and most commonly transmitted by the glassy-winged sharpshooter—a leafhopping insect found near citrus orchards and oleander plants—Pierce’s Disease is a scourge, rendering vines incapable of producing chlorophyll and killing it within one to five years. The disease is common in the southern United States and Mexico but is steadily moving northward in California, with sightings of the glassy-winged sharpshooter and outbreaks of the disease provoking major alarm in both Sonoma and Napa counties. There is neither a cure nor a chemical control for the disease, and authorities in other countries are maintaining strict quarantines to prevent its incursion.
Crown Gall (Black Knot): The Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium causes the Crown Gall disease in a wide variety of plant species. When affected, a vine develops tumors (galls) on its trunk, which girdle and essentially strangle the vine, withering or killing outright the portions of the vine above. The bacteria thrive in colder climates, and systemically live inside the grapevine. During winter freezes, when the vine’s trunk may be ruptured, the bacteria invade the outer trunk, rapidly multiplying and fomenting the onset of disease. The disease is spread through the propagation of bacteria-infected budwood.
Bacterial Blight: Caused by the Xanthomonas ampelina bacterium, Bacterial Blight often kills young grapevine shoots. They develop dark brown streaks in early spring, and eventually wither and die. Spread by rain and compromised pruning tools, the disease can be controlled by hot water treatments and copper sprays, such as the Bordeaux Mixture.

Viral Diseases

Leafroll Virus: Leafroll Virus, a condition caused by a complex of at least nine different viruses, may be responsible for as much as 60% of the world’s grape production losses. Although affected vines display radiant shades of red and gold in the autumn, such beautiful colors, combined with a characteristic downward curling of the leaves, signal the virus’s malevolent side: reduced yields and delayed ripening. Leafroll Virus, spread through propagation of infected vines or by an insect vector like the mealy bug, is currently incurable but it will not kill the vine; thus, infected vines are not always removed.
Fanleaf Degeneration: Fanleaf Degeneration, a nepovirus spread by soil nematodes feeding on infected roots, severely curtails yields and affected vineyards must be removed. A complex of similar diseases, Fanleaf Degeneration deforms shoot growth, and leads to poor fruit set and shot (seedless) berries. The leaves on an infected vine are malformed, resembling fans in appearance, and may form yellow bands around the veins. The productive lifespan of the vine and its winter durability are diminished.

Phytoplasma Diseases

Flavescence Dorée: A form of grapevine yellows, Flavescence Dorée first appeared in Armagnac in 1949. Leafhopper insects and propagation of infected vines spread the disease, which will initially delay budbreak and slow shoot growth, eventually causing bunches to fall off the vine and berries to shrivel. The disease will discolor leaves, cause pustules and cracks to form, and may kill young vines. No cure exists, although insecticides may be used to control leafhopper insect populations and retard its spread.

Sustainable Models of Viticulture

The 20th century witnessed a series of great agricultural advancements—many of which grew from wartime applications—as modern chemistry paved the way for successful monoculture. The discovery of synthetic nitrogen led to the development of chemical fertilizers, a Nobel Prize-winning endeavor blemished by its subsequent use in the poison gases of World Wars I and II. Chemical disease and pest control became widespread. By the 1950s, agriculture amongst the world’s leading nations was industrialized, and farming yields climbed. Such intensive farming practices require high inputs of (fossil fuel) energy, and industrialized farms develop dependencies on chemical means of survival as the land is stripped bare. As the 21st century dawned, such chemical enhancements are being enhanced by precise genetic modification—perhaps the only possible result of a history in which mankind has continually refined the plant species of agriculture through one form of selection or another. GMOs (genetically modified organisms) have been banned in the EU since 1998, but genetically modified yeasts were first employed in North American winemaking in 2006. Viticulture—a commercial enterprise at its heart—parallels trends and advancements in the larger world of agriculture. However, a rapidly expanding generation of growers is taking the ethos of organic and sustainable viticulture to heart. The ideal of sustainable viticulture, an unregulated (and therefore abused) term, is ultimately to return the vineyard to a self-sustaining position in harmony with the larger ecosystem to which it belongs. Its many adherents interpret the idea in different ways and to different degrees.

In the US, many advocates of greener agriculture have become fixated on the idea of organic farming. In order to grow grapes organically in the US or Australia, synthetic chemical treatments and certain filtration procedures are forbidden—although copper and sulfur treatments, such as Bordeaux Mixture, may still be allowed. When an American (or Australian) wine is labeled as organic, it must be produced from organically-grown grapes and contain no added sulfites—a stipulation which prevents most good bottles from qualifying, as sulfites are an important (and almost universal) preservative in wine. Instead, many bottles are labeled as “wine made from organically grown grapes,” a designation which permits the addition of sulfites. Despite the image of green, less than 3% of California’s acreage is certified organic. France only has about 9% of its vineyard area certified. In 2012, the EU elaborated upon existing laws for organic grapegrowing by laying out winemaking measures required in order to label a wine organic. This included limiting the amount of SO₂ allowed in winemaking (a maximum of 100 mg/L for reds and 150 mg/L for whites and rosé, with a 30 mg/L differential if residual sugar is greater than 2 g/L). It is important to remember, too, that many growers around the world practice organically but choose not to get certified for a multitude of reasons, not the least of which are economic as well as the fact that certification rules can be rigid in exceptionally challenging vintages.

While organic viticulture is admirable, it functions legally by the elimination of negative practices, rather than implementation of positive ones. Other models of sustainability take a different approach in promoting the long-term health of the soil and the vine’s relationship to its environment. In this sense, sustainability may govern (but is not limited to) water usage, energy efficiency, pest and erosion control, the planting of cover crops, the degree of mechanization, planting decisions, and even labor practices. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is considered a sustainable approach to weed, insect, and disease problems that tolerates the targeted application of some synthetic products, but limits their use overall. Often, IPM is utilized as a vineyard transitions from conventional to organic viticulture, or it may be a part of a separate sustainability philosophy. New regional sustainability organizations include VINEA, a voluntary group of Walla Walla Valley winegrowers who promote a holistic, socially- and environmentally-responsible methodology. VINEA winegrowers may not be exclusively organic, but they do farm in accordance with the standards set forth by LIVE (Low Input Viticulture and Enology, a third-party certifying system) and the vineyards are certified as Salmon-Safe. Oregon’s producers are at the forefront of sustainable approaches, and may label their wines as Oregon Sustainable Certified Wine (OSCW) provided 97% of fruit is certified by Salmon-Safe. Another approved organization, such as LIVE or USDA Organic, must certify both the fruit and the winery. California Certified Sustainable Winegrowing (CERTIFIED SUSTAINABLE), administered by the California Sustainable Winegrowing Alliance (CSWA), provides incremental certification for wineries and vineyards based on a concept of continual improvement. While less than 3% of California’s grape acreage is certified organic, as of 2015, 25% of acreage and over 60% of the state’s case production was CERTIFIED SUSTAINABLE, Lodi Rules, Napa Green, and/or SIP.

The controversial concept of biodynamic viticulture takes the concepts of organic and sustainable farming and combines them with an almost mystical sensibility. Observing the rhythms and forces of the Earth is, in the ideal of biodynamic farming, intrinsically tied to the success of any ecosystem—the farm, in concert with the cosmic periphery, becomes a whole organism, generating its own fertility as governed by the cycle of seasons and lunar activity. Truly biodynamic vineyard workers will time their various tasks by motions of celestial bodies—particularly the moon. Introduced by the Austrian Rudolf Steiner in 1924 and today personified by Nicolas Joly of the Loire, biodynamic agriculture requires the yearly application of homeopathic preparations, produced from such animal and mineral substances as dandelion flowers, stinging nettles, and “horn manure” to ritually treat and heal the soil. Biodiversity and soil rotation are emphasized. The Demeter Biodynamic Trade Association certifies biodynamic farms and vineyards internationally. Many are skeptical of the biodynamic model, and the resulting wines may be wasteful or revelatory—depending on whom one asks.

Vinification

The intricacies of vinification—the transformation of grape juice into wine—can vary considerably between different producers, different regions, and different styles of wine, but the principles remain the same.

Vinification is dependent on sound viticulture. Ultimately, the job of the winemaker is to preserve the inherent quality of a grape as it becomes wine. However, the choices a winemaker faces in determining how a grape’s character may be best expressed—and the tools at his or her disposal—are numerous. The rather quaint notion of fermentation as a natural, unaided process—and of wine as a totally natural product—is a false premise in most cases, relieved of the burden of truth by the methods inherent to modern winemaking. Many modern enhancements of the basic principles of vinification have raised the overall quality of wine worldwide, and confer a greater control over the final product. As in the practices of viticulture, some producers choose to emphasize the natural form of wine in its levels of unpredictability; others prefer to make their wines with the assurances that result from an industrialized process.

In the process of alcoholic fermentation, the metabolism of yeast cells converts sugar in grape must into ethyl alcohol (ethanol) and carbon dioxide (CO₂). Heat is generated during this process. The ratio of conversion is not perfect, and intermediate compounds must develop, bridging the transformation of sugar to alcohol. Traces of volatile compounds produced in this complex series of reactions, including acetaldehydes, ethyl acetate and fusel oils, remain in the finished wine and influence its aroma and character. While a small amount of sulfur dioxide (SO₂) is also naturally produced as a byproduct of fermentation, SO₂ is generally added to the must or juice before fermentation to prevent oxidation and bacterial contamination, and to ensure rapid fermentation. Acetaldehyde, regarded as a sign of oxidation in finished wines, is actually the last link on the chain of intermediate compounds between sugar and alcohol, and will remain in the new wine in trace amounts. A small amount of the remaining acetaldehyde is inevitably converted to acetic acid, which in turn reacts with alcohol to produce ethyl acetate, a culprit of volatile acidity in wine. When volatile acidity is encountered as a fault, excessive acetic acid has been produced by the activity of acetobacter, the group of bacteria responsible for turning wine to vinegar in the presence of oxygen. Yeasts require nitrogen to work, and low levels of nitrogen in the must leads to the formation of hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), a highly volatile compound reminiscent of rotten eggs. Winemakers may supplement low nitrogen levels through nutrient additions, to avoid excessive sulfide production during fermentation. H₂S levels may also be affected by elemental sulfur (S) coming in from the vineyard on the grapes if a treatment occurred close to harvest. In winemaking terms, the addition of sulfites refers to sulfur dioxide (SO₂); sulfides include hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), mercaptans and other foul-smelling compounds produced under reductive conditions.

The size and complexity of a fermentation vessel can range from a small plastic bin to a barrique to a 2,500 hl-capacity stainless steel tank. The amount of heat generated by fermentation increases with the size of the must—without accounting for any temperature control, small vessels provoke slow, cool fermentations and large vessels lead to short, hot fermentations. Below 50°F, most yeasts will not act; above 105°F, yeasts will die. White wine fermentations usually take place on the cooler end, as fruit and freshness are preserved at lower temperatures. Red wine fermentations may reach into the 90s, although winemakers run the risk of volatalized (lost) flavor compounds and stuck fermentations as the thermometer passes 95°F. The benefit of hot fermentations for red wines is in the increased extraction of color, tannin and flavor compounds. The risk of stuck fermentation—a disastrous and sudden shutdown of yeast activity—has been greatly reduced in the age of temperature control and selected commercial yeasts. However, stuck fermentations still keep many winemakers up at night during, particularly if it has been a challenging vintage, yeast nutrition has been difficult to manage, and/or they have opted for using ambient yeasts to ferment. Large fermentation tanks with temperature control can accompany either cool or hot fermentations, without allowing the temperature to rise out of hand. Barrel fermentation, on the other hand, lacks temperature control but the relatively small size of the vessel prevents temperatures from rising too high. White grapes (such as Chardonnay) fermented in barrel will lose some of the initial fruit and fresh aromatics, yet gain a more cohesive expression of oak and a subtler color than those fermented in tank but aged in a new barrel. Barrel fermented wines are generally subject to the processes of lees contact and bâtonnage, or lees stirring, which add further complexity and richness. Other fermentation vessels include large wooden casks, ceramic amphorae and cement eggs—a less porous vessel than a barrel, yet still allowing some oxygen ingress.

Bâtonnage.

The agent of fermentation—yeast—is an important consideration for the winemaker. A wide number of cultured yeasts are available, developed in laboratories and designed to lend control over some aspect of the fermentation process or affect the character of the wine. Cultured yeasts promise reliability, and are often able to continue to work in higher levels of alcohol than ambient yeasts. Ambient yeasts—often inaccurately identified as native or wild—inhabit the winery and come to life in the presence of must, although they are by nature less predictable than cultured yeasts. Many winemakers believe ambient yeasts create a more complex wine. Some will hope for a smooth beginning to ambient yeast fermentation, but inoculate the must with cultured yeast if the progress is slow; others will inoculate with cultured yeasts and use SO₂ to eliminate any ambient yeast in the must in order to maintain total control. Depending on the type of yeast used, the wine will take as little as a week to more than a month to ferment dry.

In the milder climates of the Old World, chaptalization—the addition of sugar to the must to increase the final alcohol and glycerin content of the wine—is frequently practiced. In the warmer climates of the New World, some producers respond to the problem of excessive ripening and the resulting high alcohol levels by removing alcohol from the wine through modern devices such as spinning cones. Another technique of alcohol adjustment, reverse osmosis, separates the wine into two constituent parts, permeate and retentate. The permeate, which contains water and ethanol, is then distilled to a proper level before being recombined with the retentate—the wine’s aromatic compounds—at a lower percentage of alcohol. Once banned in the EU, such processes of de-alcoholization by physical separation were legalized in 2009, provided the level of alcohol is not adjusted by more than 2%. Winemakers in warm regions may also choose to balance their wines through acidification: the addition of acid to must or to a finished wine. Tartaric acid and malic acid, the two principal acids in grape juice, may be used for acidification; tartaric acid, added prior to fermentation, is preferred.

As (or after) the alcoholic fermentation occurs, the unrelated process of malolactic fermentation, also known as secondary fermentation or “malo,” may take place in the wine. In malolactic fermentation, lactic acid bacteria convert harsh malic acids into softer lactic acids and carbon dioxide. It rounds out a wine’s texture. Malolactic fermentation may be initiated by inoculation, or it may occur naturally, as lactic acid bacteria are naturally found alongside yeasts on grape skins. It may also be prevented or shortened by removing the organisms responsible. Malolactic fermentation often occurs in red wines, and most of the world’s fuller styles of white wines undergo either full or partial malo. Lighter, high-acid whites are sometimes treated to a degree of malo, although producers of certain varieties, like Riesling, scrupulously avoid it. Diacetyl, the compound responsible for buttery aromas in wine, is a byproduct of malolactic fermentation.

Carbonic maceration (macération carbonique) is an alcoholic fermentation used for some red wines, wherein whole, uncrushed grapes in an anaerobic environment (under a protective blanket of CO₂) initiate an intracellular fermentation. Attempting to sustain itself, a berry will release enzymes to transform its own sugar into ethanol and carbon dioxide. This occurs without the action of yeasts. However, such fermentations cannot produce more than a couple of degrees of alcohol, as the berry ceases activity in the presence of enough ethanol. Carbonic maceration must therefore be combined with a standard fermentation in wine production. In Beaujolais, where the process is often used for nouveau and other wines, a tank will be filled with whole berries. Berries at the bottom will be crushed under the weight of those above it and will ferment normally. The ensuing carbon dioxide will blanket the whole berries above, which will then begin to ferment by carbonic maceration. The grapes will eventually explode, or the winemaker will press the juice, and then the yeasts would begin their work.

Carbonic maceration.

Red Wine Production

After harvest, grapes may be sorted (on a vibrating table or belt) prior to being crushed and destemmed. This initial sorting is labor-intensive and expensive, but allows the winemaker to remove MOG—material other than grapes. Crushing grapes, traditionally accomplished by foot, is usually carried out by machine—a crusher-destemmer. Alternatively, some producers may choose to use whole clusters (retaining the stems), whole berries (discarding the stems), or partially destemmed and partially crushed berries. The fermentation of whole berries—a common practice with Pinot Noir and Syrah—will encourage a level of carbonic maceration, whereas stems may be retained for spicy aromatic complexity and structure. Whole cluster fermentation requires less handling while improving the movement of juice and air through the cap. Damaged or unripe stems, however, can cause undesirable green flavors in the wine. If a winery uses whole berries—and spares no expense—the grapes may be sorted again after destemming to remove jacks (leftover pieces of grape stem) and any remaining MOG.

Crushed red grapes will usually undergo a pre-fermentation maceration, which promotes the extraction of color and tannin. Traditionally, this maceration was the simple consequence of waiting for ambient yeasts to ignite fermentation, but today many inoculated musts undergo this period of aqueous extraction. Cold soak, a pre-fermentation maceration technique that relies on substantial SO₂ additions and a cold temperature, was developed in Burgundy in the 1970s and has been popularized by Pinot Noir producers worldwide. Proponents may cold soak grapes for nearly a week before fermentation. Occasionally, some juice will be run off prior to fermentation, in order for the producer to have a greater ratio of skins to juice, and therefore achieve more extraction.

Punching down the cap (pigeage) of California Pinot Noir.

Fermentation and maceration occur in tandem for red wines. Grape skins are always included in red wine fermentation, as the winemaker hopes to extract the phenolics contained within grape skins—tannin, color compounds (anthocyanins) and flavor compounds—with the help of heat and alcohol. The juice, in most cases, would be colorless without the skins. As red wine ferments, a cap (chapeau) of grape solids (pomace) develops on the surface of the must, pushed up by the action of CO₂. Careful cap management is integral to red wine production: without intervention, the cap will dry out, solidify and prevent extraction. One traditional method of submerging and breaking up the cap is pigeage, or punching down. Pigeage may be performed manually—by workers using poles, paddles, or even their own feet—or mechanically. An alternate method of cap management is remontage, in which the fermenting wine is pumped over the top of the cap. Pumping over will agitate and aerate the wine to a greater degree. Both methods may be performed once or several times daily during fermentation. A third technique, délestage, allows the winemaker to fully drain the fermentation vessel. The wine is racked into a separate vessel while the cap drains fully, and is then pumped back over the cap in the fermentation vessel. Once fermentation has concluded, a fuller-bodied red may continue to macerate for a period of days or weeks before it is pressed off the skins. The most tannic and traditional styles of Nebbiolo-based wines in Piedmont often incur at least a month of post-fermentation maceration.

After fermentation and any post-fermentation maceration, the winemaker will draw the high quality, free-run wine (vin de goutte) from the tank. The remaining pomace is then pressed to yield coarser, tannic press wine (vin de presse). A small proportion of press wine may be blended in to a top cuvée for structure, or it may be entirely reserved for lesser wines. The traditional basket press relies on vertical pressure to press the pomace, whereas the modern pneumatic bladder press exerts gentle pressure on the grapes by means of its inflation with air. The wines may be blended or kept as separate lots, and moved into the preferred aging vessel, if any. High quality red wines are generally matured in oak barrels—the size and percentage of new barrels is determined by the style of the wine. The maturation period (élevage) ranges from a few months to more than two years in wood for some top Bordeaux and Napa wines, and the wines racked periodically during the process. Racking, or soutirage, is the movement of wine from one vessel to another, providing aeration and clarification as the wine is removed from its lees, or sediment. Malolactic fermentation may occur quickly at the end of fermentation or slowly during maturation. SO₂is often added during maturation, or just before bottling—an addition that is anathema to advocates of sans soufre (“without sulfur”), a newer doctrine of extreme natural winemaking.

Prior to bottling, the wines will be racked a final time, and may be fined or filtered. Both processes ensure greater clarification in the finished wine, and filtration promotes stability in the bottle. Fining (collage) requires a fining agent to precipitate solids out of the wine: bentonite, casein, isinglass, gelatin, and egg white are commonly used. When employed in the fining process, casein (a milk protein), egg white, gelatin and isinglass (a material obtained from sturgeon bladders) may create a dilemma for vegans and vegetarians. Bentonite, a type of clay, escapes criticism from such quarters. Filtration, a more invasive and expensive process, is often accomplished through the use of pads or a membrane with microscopic openings. Many critics charge that fining and especially filtration strip the wine of character, and a growing number of winemakers are proclaiming their aversion to either method.

White Wine Production

Chardonnay undergoing a brief period of skin contact.

White wine grapes are crushed and pressed prior to fermentation. The grapes may be crushed and destemmed, or crushed as whole bunches, as the stems provide good drainage channels for the juice during the pressing stage. White grapes may see some extended skin contact, usually measured in hours rather than days, between crushing and pressing. This maceration enables the extraction of aromatic compounds but may lead to excessive tannin and bitterness in the final wine if unchecked. White grapes are pressed in either a traditional style of vertical press or a modern pneumatic press, and—like red grapes after fermentation—first yield free-run juice, followed by pressed juice of decreasing quality. After pressing, the juice is allowed to settle (débourbage). This process allows the juice to be racked off suspended solids and clarified prior to fermentation. During all of these procedures, warm temperatures and oxygen are the enemy, and winemakers must keep musts cool and prevent spoilage or premature fermentation with the judicious use of SO₂.

Fermentation occurs at a cooler temperature for white wines than for reds, and there is no cap, as the grapes have already been pressed. White wines are frequently clarified after fermentation, and may undergo cold stabilization—a process that causes tartrate crystals to precipitate out of the wine at a temperature of approximately 25°F. In white wines that are not cold-stabilized, crystals may later form in the bottle. Light, aromatic white wines do not often undergo barrel maturation or malolactic fermentation, and will usually be bottled shortly after the conclusion of fermentation. White wines may be fermented to dryness, but fermentation is arrested for many aromatic white wines while some degree of residual sugar remains. In some cases, sweetness may also be added back to a wine after it ferments to dryness, in the form of sterilized fresh grape juice, known as Süssreserve in Germany. Off-dry and sweet white wines are often filtered, as the sugar content can lead to unexpected refermentation in the bottle.

White wines matured in oak often undergo full or partial malolactic fermentation. The lees, or yeast sediment, build up in fermenting red wines as well as whites, but their impact is more noticeable in the development of white wines. Fermented wine, whether in tank or barrel, may be left in contact with the lees in order to encourage malolactic fermentation—lactic acid bacteria feed on the nutrients in lees—and supplement richness and body in the wines. The effects of lees contact may be punctuated by bâtonnage. White wines matured in oak, such as the classic wines of Burgundy or Graves, are typically bottled after 9 to 18 months in barrel. During the maturation period, the wines may be racked and the lees may be stirred frequently or not at all. They may be fined or filtered prior to bottling.

Rosé Wine Production

There are two basic methods of rosé winemaking: blending and limited skin maceration. A blended rosé is simply the product of red and white base wines blended together, a technique widely regarded as inferior. Blending is prohibited throughout the EU, but only for wines below the PGI level! While individual appellations typically preclude the use of blending in rosé winemaking, this does not rule out changes to PDO/PGI regulations in the future, and the world's most expensive rosé wine—Champagne—is almost always assembled as a blend of white and red base wines. Nonetheless, subjecting red grapes to a short period of skin contact prior to fermentation is generally upheld as the superior technique for still rosé winemaking. In this method, a winemaker may purposefully craft rosé by leaving the juice in contact with its skins for a period of several hours to several days, depending on the desired extraction of color. Conversely, he or she may "bleed" juice from a maceration, producing rosé as a byproduct of red wine fermentation. In this variant, known as the saignée ("bleeding") method, pink juice is drawn from a vessel to concentrate the remaining must for red wine production, improving its color and structure. Finally, some winemakers may choose not to crush at all, achieving the palest of hues through direct pressing of whole red grapes or clusters. From a whisper of pink to salmon to orange to cherry red, the color of rosé wines can vary greatly, depending on the technique of production and the length of maceration.

Oak

Oak, a watertight, lightweight, and malleable wood, became a vessel of choice for wine during the era of ancient Rome. Oak allows gentle, slow oxidation to occur, rounding out and softening the texture of wine. The smaller the oak container, the more marked this effect is. New oak also contributes flavor—in the form of lactones and phenolic aldehydes such as vanillin—and wood tannin to wine, but this effect is dulled upon repeated usage—a barrel becomes neutral, ceasing to contribute flavor and aroma by its fourth to sixth year of use. Most of the barrel’s flavor is transmitted to the wine in its first year. However, a neutral barrel can still be useful, especially if new wood flavor is not desired. The use of new barrels is not just a stylistic concern, as new oak barrels are extremely expensive. The use of oak chips, staves, and powder are cheaper alternatives, although they will not provide an oxidative effect. Micro-oxygenation (microbullage), an aeration technique in which small amounts of oxygen are allowed to enter a stainless steel tank during either fermentation or maturation of the wine, may be combined with oak chips to approximate the effects of a new barrel at a fraction of the cost.

The flavor imparted by an oak barrel is dependent on the level of toast and the type of wood. French oak barrels, produced from Quercus robur and Quercus petraea trees, are characterized by tight wood grain developed through slow growth. Faster-growing American white oak species (Quercus alba) usually display wider grain. Traditionally, French oak is split rather than sawn, a technique that produces fewer staves but prevents leakage in the final barrel. American oak is less porous and can be sawn without fear of leakage, but this method releases more vanillin and lactones, resulting in the coconut character of American oak. The drying process of the green staves also varies between European and American coopers. French oak is usually air-dried, a gentle process that leaches out some of oak’s more aggressive tannins and flavors, whereas American oak is quickly kiln-dried, and lactones are concentrated. The quality (and subtlety) of American oak is improving, however, and many American coopers now use air-drying techniques.

In order to make an oak barrel, heat must be applied to bend each dry wooden stave into shape. This process is divided into three stages: warming (chauffage), shaping (cintrage), and toasting (bousinage)—the latter stage has a significant effect on the wine. A barrel is subject to light, medium, or heavy toasting, and while the level of lactones (responsible for oaky aromas) and vanillin rises with increased toasting, they will subside with heavy toasting in place of spicier, smokier aromas. Light toast promotes the most extraction of wood tannin.

The Future of Winemaking

Wine has been an important commodity since ancient times, and winemaking decisions cannot be totally divorced from the business of wine, except in the most privileged of cases. Economic realities inform decisions in the winery and the vineyard. Striving for sustainability is necessary, but such wines are more expensive to produce, at least in the short term. While the downside of industrial viticulture and winemaking is easy to see, the search for sustainability and low-impact techniques may promote its own dangerous sensibility of doctrine and purity. Winemakers who advocate sustainable vineyard practices must determine if vinification practices should be altered to conform to the ethos guiding management of the vineyard. What is an unnatural manipulation in the winery and what is an accepted practice, necessary to the character of a particular wine? As the public continues to demand—and deserve—a right to understand what we consume, winery decisions will be thrust ever more into the spotlight. A “natural,” hands-off approach in the winery may lead to superior wines, or it may lead to bacterial spoilage and inconsistency. A winemaker may choose from many avenues of production, and must determine his or her own balance of quality, consistency, and level of intervention.

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Portugal

user22387 — Tue, 11 Feb 2025 15:52:00 GMT

Revision 80 posted to Study-Guide by user22387 on 2/11/2025 3:52:00 PM

Table of Contents

Portugal
The History of Port, Madeira and Portuguese Wine
Portuguese Wine Classifications and Grape Varieties
Minho and Vinho Verde
Transmontano
Duriense: Douro and Porto
Beiras
Lisboa
Península de Setúbal
Tejo and Alentejano
Algarve
Açores
Terras Madeirenses
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Portugal

Portugal ranks as the world’s 10th largest producer of wine; the country is 1st in the world in per capita consumption.

The History of Port, Madeira and Portuguese Wine

Portuguese Wine Classifications and Grape Varieties

Minho and Vinho Verde

Transmontano

Duriense: Douro and Porto

Vineyards along the Douro River.

(For further information on the viticulture, production process, and categories of Porto DOP wines, please refer to the Compendium.)

Beiras and Terras do Dão

Lisboa

Península de Setúbal

Tejo and Alentejano

The Alentejano IGP, covering 30% of Portugal’s landmass, borders the eastern edge of both Tejo and the Península de Setúbal, extending southward to the Atlantic Coast north of Algarve. Alentejano’s hot growing season manifests in the perennial problems of low acidity and high alcohol, and irrigation is absolutely necessary in the region’s arid plains. The Alentejo DOP within Alentejano includes eight subzones: Moura, Granja-Amareleja, Évora, Vidigueira, Reguengos, Redondo, Borba, and Portalegre—the latter, located on the cooler, granitic slopes of the São Mamede Mountains in the northernmost sector of the DOP, is the most promising area in the region. Red wine production in Alentejo exceeds that of whites, and Trincadeira is the region’s most prominent grape. Plantations of Quercus suber—cork trees—are widespread through the region.

Algarve

Açores

Terras Madeirenses

For further information on the fortified wines of Madeira, click here

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Australia and New Zealand

user22387 — Tue, 11 Feb 2025 11:55:43 GMT

Current Revision posted to Study-Guide by user22387 on 2/11/2025 11:55:43 AM

Table of Contents

Australia
Wine Australia
New South Wales
Victoria
South Australia
Western Australia
Queensland
Tasmania
New Zealand
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Australia

Although Australia’s history of viticulture is relatively short—vines arrived on the continent with the First Fleet of British prisoners in 1788—the country has made its mark on the global wine market and is now a huge exporter of both its wines and its winemaking methodology.

In its earliest days as an English penal colony, Australia’s winemaking suffered from little expertise. However, free settlers from Europe began to arrive, spurred by the promise of gold, and the vine flourished, spreading from New South Wales throughout the southeast by 1850. Over 6000 liters of wine was exported to Britain by 1854. A burgeoning population thirsted for wine in the colony as well, and many small wineries sprung up throughout New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, and South Australia to meet the new demand. Penfolds and Lindemans, two of Australia’s most recognizable brands—both are now owned by Treasury Wine Estates—launched during this early period. However, as the easily extractable surface and stream deposits of gold depleted, many prospectors followed, and domestic demand for wine fell. Lowered demand, coupled with restrictive state trade barriers, led some producers to export to survive, whereas others remained small and localized—a division that exists, in exacerbated form, to this day. Economic recession and phylloxera befell Australia in the latter half of the 19th century, further harming the industry, but officials took strict and immediate measures to combat the spread of phylloxera, confining it to Victoria and a portion of New South Wales. While the root louse decimated the Victorian wine industry—Australia’s most important wine area in the late 1800s—it cleared the way for South Australia to emerge as the continent’s largest region of production. A second key factor in South Australia’s rise to prominence was the creation of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901, as federation brought a relaxation of the interstate trade barriers. Today, the state of South Australia annually produces 50% of the nation’s grapes, and most of Australia’s largest wine groups are headquartered there.

As viticulture was shifting around the turn of the century to the newly irrigated lands surrounding the Murray, Darling, and Murrumbidgee Rivers, the focus largely turned to sweet, fortified wine production. From the post-phylloxera period until the 1960s, approximately 80% of Australia’s production consisted of sweet, fortified wines. Britain imported more wine from Australia than France in the decade before World War II, and Australian wineries eagerly provided assistance during a critical wartime beer shortage for the US Army! While these sweet, alcoholic wines remained in the majority until 1970, momentum was building for dry table wines. A surge in quality at the lowest level, coupled with the adoption of new technologies, changing consumer preferences, and skyrocketing domestic consumption, brought Australia to the forefront globally by the 21st century. The Australian wine industry began to offer premium varietal wines at value price points, led by Chardonnay, Shiraz (Syrah), and Cabernet Sauvignon; and these grapes eclipsed plantings of the high-yielding varieties previously utilized for port-style wines by the mid-1990s. Australians developed bag-in-the-box technology, and were early proponents of the Stelvin closure. The Australian varietal wines were fruity, clean, uncomplicated, soft, and technically sound at a time when many value bottlings from the Old World were simply poor wines, and by 2003 Australia’s gross annual wine sales reached 4.5 billion dollars—a target the Australians conservatively set for 2025. Today, Australia is the fifth largest wine exporter in volume, behind Italy, France, Spain, and Chile.

At the heart of Australian commercial winemaking are technical proficiency, mechanical harvesting, irrigation, and blending. The Australian Wine Research Institute and the Commonwealth Scientific & Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO), both based in Canberra, have contributed greatly to the nation’s scientific understanding of the grape, and the University of Adelaide has an acclaimed oenology program. Australian winemakers rose to the forefront of viticultural innovation, utilizing modern techniques of canopy management and soil mapping, and they have spread their technical acumen across the globe as flying winemakers—a term that originated in reference to Australians. Cultured yeasts, acidification, and micro-oxygenation are common at the mass-market level, although chaptalization is not allowed—grapes have no problem ripening in Australia’s climate. Lacking a large population and a source of cheap labor, Australia’s vintners rely on mechanical harvesting and have planted their vineyards accordingly, on flat sites rather than unworkable hillsides. The mechanical harvests often occur at night, to preserve freshness and acidity. CSIRO developed the counterintuitive technique of minimal (zero) pruning, which actually restricts vigor, for Australia’s low cost vineyards. Irrigation in the extremely dry climate of Australia is essential—only through irrigation were large swaths of the country’s vineyard lands made accessible to the vine. Riverland in South Australia and Riverina in New South Wales, which together account for nearly 50% of Australia’s wine production, were unsuitable for viticulture prior to the use of irrigation. Today, vintners have to tread carefully when irrigating Australia’s high-saline soils, and they have become adept at moisture management. Despite an approximate 2,460 wineries, a small collection of Australia's largest companies control the majority of production and have the capability to make fruity, accessible wine cheaply, and sell it for less than many of their counterparts in California, South America, and the Old World. Furthermore, at the base level they can regulate and assure quality and a sense of brand consistency by blending over vast tracts of land, often spread over several states. This blending philosophy carries from the mass-market to the highest levels of quality in Australia, including the iconic Penfolds Grange, a Shiraz introduced by Max Schubert in 1951 as Grange Hermitage. Unlike most luxury wines, Grange, a renowned wine and one of the first New World collectible bottlings, is generally blended from many vineyards across several regions—a testament to the Australian style.

As Penfolds’ Grange Shiraz illustrates, Australia’s global successes have not been solely on the inexpensive side of wine sales; Australia’s top reds, led by Grange and Henschke’s Hill of Grace Shiraz, built considerable momentum in the 1990s and 2000s. Despite more recent large-scale replanting to take advantage of the turn toward dry varietal wines, Australia’s success in combating and isolating phylloxera has bestowed the country with some of the oldest vines in the world—some are over 150 years old, and are planted on their own rootstock. Australia’s producers can coax extraordinarily rich and concentrated red wines from such vines, and an inky, dense, high-alcohol style became the darling of a number of influential American wine critics from the late 1990s to 2000s. While Australia’s larger producers could issue mass bottlings extremely competitively, old-vine Australian wines with cult status surged upward in price and demand. Some cult bottlings, such as Grange and Yalumba’s Octavius Shiraz, stem from Australia’s oldest and largest producers, whereas others—Clarendon Hills Astralis and Torbreck’s RunRig (Shiraz)—are the result of newer projects. All of the aforementioned wines are sourced from old vine parcels. With the successes of such limited, high-end bottles some producers are transitioning from the traditional American oak to French barrique, and placing more emphasis on the expression of single vineyard sites.

By the mid-2000s, exports were surging, as was domestic consumption, and Australian wine was receiving lavish critical praise. The industry had a strong base of quality and efficiency, with a wide range of varietal offerings. Still, then and now, problems loom. Enthusiasm in the early 2000s led to overplanting, and the industry only recently emerged from a decade-long wine glut that began in 2009. The country’s southeastern winemaking regions have been gripped by severe and continuing drought, affecting several vintages in the past 20 years and leading to questions about the long-term sustainability of some of the country’s irrigated vineyards. Water rights are a huge concern. In 2009, terrible brush fires wreaked havoc on vineyards in the Yarra Valley and other wine-producing regions in Victoria—a direct effect of the dry weather and one of the worst natural disasters in Australia’s history. More recently, the bushfires of 2019 and 2020 did long-term damage to wineries in South Australia, New South Wales, Victoria, and Queensland. Springtime and early fall frosts also create constant worry for winemakers.

But a world-renowned innovative research center (Australian Wine Research Institute), marketing efforts on behalf of Wine Australia, and active emerging export markets like Asia have renewed Australia’s significance on the global scene. While volume has decreased, quality is rising, as Australia is seeing record growth in exports in the premium and fine wine sector. While the warm climate throughout much of the country naturally makes for fruit-driven, full-bodied, higher alcohol wine, some of the cooler zones are gaining recognition as well. The sommelier community has responded to the food friendliness of these wines, and there is a captive millennial audience with a preference for lower octane wine. A rising global trend reflected in Australia is that of cultivating more site-specific wines as well. As an added advantage in the export markets of Europe and the US, Australian vintage-dated wines always appear on shelves before Northern Hemisphere wines, as the harvest occurs six months earlier in the wine-producing countries of the Southern Hemisphere.

The FOB (free on board) price includes the cost of delivery to the port of exit; in this arrangement, liability transfers from seller to buyer at that point (Graph courtesy of Wine Australia)

Wine Australia

Wine Australia, a government authority established in 1981 as the Australia Wine and Brandy Corporation, maintains oversight over the wine industry, regulating its label language, defining geographical boundaries of wine regions, moderating exports and trade, and promoting the product at home and abroad.

It introduced the Label Integrity Program for the 1990 vintage, requiring any wines labeled by variety, vintage, or region to contain a minimum 85% of the stated grape, year, or region, respectively. If multiple varieties are to be listed on the label (i.e., Grenache, Syrah, Mourvèdre) the grapes must be listed in order of proportion in the blend. All components making up a minimum 85% of the blend must appear on the label, and no listed grape may be in lower proportion than an unnamed variety.

Regions in Australia are defined by Wine Australia as Geographical Indications (GIs) and are listed on the Register of Protected Names, a means of formal appellation protection. As in other New World countries, Australia’s appellations are purely geographic in scope; there are no restrictions on grape varieties, yields, etc. Within each state, Australian appellations are subdivided into zones, regions, and subregions. Both regions and subregions are defined by Wine Australia as single tracts of land, comprising at least five independently owned vineyards of at least five hectares apiece, with a minimum output of 500 tons of wine grapes annually. Regions are not necessarily contained within a single zone, nor are zones necessarily contained within a single state. In one instance, blending can occur across state lines while maintaining a guise of regionality: in 1996, Wine Australia authorized the multistate zone of South Eastern Australia, which encompasses all of Victoria, Tasmania, and New South Wales, along with the winegrowing areas of South Australia and Queensland. Wines may also be labeled with the state (or country) of origin. Certain traditional expressions are protected label terms in Australia, but many of the more flagrant adoptions (Champagne, Tokay, Madeira, Port, etc.) have been slowly phased out by agreement with the EU.

New South Wales

New South Wales is Australia’s most populous state and the site of the country’s first vineyards, planted in 1788. The Great Dividing Range, a complex of mountain ranges running along the north-south axis of eastern Australia, separates the wetter coastal areas from the more arid interior.

New South Wales accounts for approximately one-quarter of Australia’s wine production, with over half of the state’s production concentrated west of the Great Dividing Range in the heavily irrigated Riverina region, also known as the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area. Riverina represents Australian industrial viticulture at its most efficient; Casella, the producer of the runaway success [yellow tail], sources most of its fruit for the brand from Riverina. De Bortoli, another huge wine producer in Riverina, crowns its range with the impressive Noble One, a botrytised Semillon dessert wine.

Occupying a gentle, flat river valley running eastward from the Brokenback Mountains to the coast, the Hunter region (the lower half of the Hunter Valley zone) is one of Australia’s most important GIs. Viticulture in the Lower Hunter Valley dates to 1830, and in 1855 Napoleon III sipped not Champagne, but rather a sparkling Hunter Valley wine during the closing ceremonies of the Paris Exhibition—that famous event in the wine world that christened the classified châteaux of Bordeaux. Hunter is subtropical, and has one of the warmest climates in Australia—a condition mitigated by high amounts of humidity, rain, and wind. Despite the heat, 60% of Hunter’s output is white wine; Semillon, or Hunter Riesling, is the region’s greatest white grape. Top Hunter Valley Semillon, such as Tyrrell’s Vat 1, may age for over two decades, surpassing an austere, grassy youth to develop richness, honey, and buttered toast tones over time. Surprisingly for such a warm climate, the grape rarely achieves more than 11–12% ABV. The Portuguese white variety Verdelho is also popular in the region, producing more aromatic, tropical-scented wines. Broke Fordwich, a subregion of Hunter, claims the oldest Verdelho plantings in the country and offers dynamic Semillon wines sourced from sandy, alluvial soils. Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon are the region's most important red grapes.

In the inland Southern New South Wales zone, the Canberra District region is technically split between the state of New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory. Shiraz performs extremely well in the region’s continental climate, and Clonakilla’s Canberra District Shiraz, co-fermented with a small percentage of Viognier, has rapidly risen to the ranks of Australia’s finest. To the southwest of Canberra, the alpine, cool-climate Tumbarumba GI produces sparkling wines and still Pinot Noir and Chardonnay from the sun-drenched, basalt slopes of the Snowy Mountains.

Victoria

Victoria, the smallest and coolest state on the Australian mainland, has rebounded from the scourge of phylloxera—and the resulting forced devastation of many of its vineyards—to become one of Australia’s most diverse and vibrant wine-producing areas.

Coastal Victoria is cooled by sea breezes blowing up from Antarctica, and the Port Phillip zone surrounding the city of Melbourne has a cool maritime climate, experiencing winter average temperatures lower than Bordeaux or Burgundy. A genuine range of depth, distinction and style is evident in the Pinot Noir wines of the Yarra Valley, Mornington Peninsula, and the warmer Geelong region within Port Phillip, as well as those from the coastal Gippsland zone to the east. The Yarra Valley GI, Victoria’s oldest wine region, was once the exclusive preserve of smaller boutique wineries, such as the outstanding Mount Mary, but investment and larger producers have arrived with the region’s modern successes. The French Champagne giant Moët & Chandon saw the Yarra Valley’s promise; they started the Australian Domaine Chandon here in 1987. In addition to Pinot Noir, elegant styles of Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, and Shiraz (often cofermented with Viognier, and generally called Syrah) are encouraging. Two distinct soil types—gray-brown sandy loam and red basalt-derived soils—divide the valley, and as producers continue to match soil, grape, and the wide diversity of altitude and site, Yarra Valley wines will continue to improve.

The Mornington Peninsula, a sliver of land to the south of Melbourne that encloses the Port Phillip Bay, is an even cooler, windier region and one of Australia’s most profoundly maritime climates. Pinot Noir, Pinot Gris and Chardonnay thrive; much of the GI is too cool for late-ripening grapes like Cabernet Sauvignon.

The inland zones of North West Victoria, Central Victoria, and North East Victoria experience a more continental climate, typified by a large diurnal temperature shift. The North West Victoria zone is the hottest of the three, and irrigation is essential. Murray Darling and Swan Hill, the zone’s two GI regions, are shared between Victoria and the state of New South Wales. Vineyards are dominated by Chardonnay and Shiraz and are generally industrial in scope, threatened by Australia’s recent water woes.

Central Victoria is only slightly cooler. Red grapes, particularly Shiraz, thrive in the Bendigo, Heathcote, and Goulburn Valley GIs. Phylloxera spelled disaster for many wineries in Victoria, yet Tahbilk, a compelling producer in the Nagambie Lakes subregion of Goulburn Valley, protected its vineyards from the pest and today produces a flagship Shiraz from vines planted in 1860. The estate also boasts the oldest Marsanne vines in Australia, and possibly the world.

In the North East Victoria zone, Rutherglen and Glenrowan are famous for sweet fortified wines. A fortified Topaque (formerly Tokay) style is produced from Muscadelle grapes. Rutherglen’s aged, fortified Brown Muscat (Muscat à Petits Grains Rouge) wines are incredibly rich, sweet, and raisinated, with the more mature wines displaying marked rancio character. The Muscat of Rutherglen Network, a producers syndicate established in 1995, has developed a voluntary four-tier classification system for the wines based on age, sweetness, and complexity. The ages and residual sugar ranges for each category are indicative of each classification but not absolute. Producers are responsible for classifying their own wines, based on taste alone, and member wines are denoted by the inclusion of a stylized R logo on the label.

South Australia

The wine state of South Australia is divided into eight zones, with production concentrated in the lower southeastern sector of the state. Much of the arid Far North zone, which covers the entire northern portion of the state, is not even suitable for agriculture.

Despite the cluster of viticultural activity, the southeastern regions are homogenous in neither climate nor character, and a range of grapes and styles exists. Within the Limestone Coast zone, the cool, maritime-influenced region of Coonawarra produces what is often considered Australia’s best Cabernet Sauvignon. Defined by elegance, soft tannins, red fruit, and a telltale note of eucalyptus, Coonawarra’s best efforts include the wines of Majella, Wynns' John Riddoch, and Parker Estate’s First Growth. The vines enjoy a long, even growing season moderated by frequent cloud cover; spring frost is a chief hazard. Coonawarra is seemingly flat, yet a very slight ridge and the well-drained red terra rossa topsoil provides optimal conditions for Cabernet Sauvignon. While not unique to Coonawarra, terra rossa is famously associated with the region, leading to some consternation amongst terroir-minded producers when the GI’s boundaries were liberally defined to include areas of other soil types.

To the north of Coonawarra, Padthaway GI also includes areas of terra rossa soil and produces a similar style of Cabernet. Despite its slightly warmer climate, 37% of its vineyards are planted to white grapes; Riesling, Pinot Grigio, and Chardonnay account for nearly 45% of the production. The newer GIs of Wrattonbully, Robe, Mount Benson, and Mount Gambier compose the remainder of the Limestone Coast regions. Overall, red grapes dominate this cool-climate zone.

The Lower Murray zone is directly north of the Limestone Coast; the heavily irrigated Riverland GI, known for its production of bulk wine, is the zone’s sole region. Here, the climate is continental and hot, and the region’s low rainfall, high soil salinity, and water shortages make the future for agriculture less certain.

West of Lower Murray are the zones of Fleurieu, Barossa, and Mount Lofty Ranges, the sources of some of Australia’s finest wines. The Fleurieu climate as a whole is essentially Mediterranean, tempered by Southern Ocean currents and the effects of the inland Lake Alexandrina, directly south of Langhorne Creek GI. The zone’s most important and warmest region is McLaren Vale GI, a predominantly red wine area focusing on Cabernet Sauvignon and Rhône varieties. Shiraz, Grenache, and Mourvèdre (Mataro) show rich, textural, full body and tend toward jam or dried fruit flavors. The three are often blended, although varietal Grenache is resurgent. The region’s best-known wines, such as D’Arenberg’s Dead Arm Shiraz, Yangarra’s High Sands Grenache, Drew Noon’s Grenache-based Eclipse, and the Clarendon Hills’s Astralisdry-farmed Shiraz result from extremely old, low-yielding vines.

North of the Fleurieu zone, Mount Lofty Ranges encapsulates the three regions of Adelaide Hills, Adelaide Plains, and Clare Valley. Adelaide Hills GI, the southernmost region in Mount Lofty Ranges, contains the Lenswood and Piccadilly Valley subregions. Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, and sparkling wines retain good acidity in the region’s cool maritime climate. Despite Clare Valley’s warmer, continental climate and preponderance of red grapes in the vineyard, the GI offers Australia’s most classic and ageworthy interpretation of Riesling. Higher-altitude, west-facing slopes often produce the better wines, cooled by afternoon breezes and low nighttime temperatures. The unofficial subregions of Watervale and Polish Hill River are characterized by limestone and broken slate, respectively, offering piercing, dry Rieslings buoyed by lime candy, petrol, and tropical notes. Body and alcohol levels are generally a bit higher than those of their Old World counterparts, yet the wines can be just as austere in their youth. Grosset, an early and fervent convert to the screw-cap closure, is an acknowledged master of the style. Adelaide Hills and Adelaide Plains should not be confused with the Adelaide GI, a “super zone” allowing producers to blend freely from Barossa, Fleurieu, and Mount Lofty Ranges.

Surrounded on three sides by Mount Lofty Ranges, the inland Barossa zone is Australia’s most important region for premium Shiraz. The Barossa Valley GI (a region within the Barossa zone) is home to 150-year-old vines, and ranks with the Hunter Valley as one of Australia’s most celebrated wine regions. High-end Barossa Valley Shiraz is a critical darling: opaque, dense, heavily extracted, and full of dark fruit and chocolate. Traditionally, American oak hogsheads (300 liters) are used to age the wines, although many producers are now implementing more and more French oak barriques. Co-fermentation with Viognier, in the style of Côte-Rôtie, is on the increase as some look to brighten and lift the wines, fixing color in the process. Penfolds is based in Barossa Valley, and the company’s iconic “Grange” bottling usually relies on a substantial portion of Barossa fruit. Torbreck, Peter Lehmann, and Rockford are excellent sources for Shiraz and other burly, prowerful reds. The vineyards of Eden Valley GI, Barossa Valley’s cooler counterpart in the zone, are more evenly distributed between white and red production. Riesling, Chardonnay, Viognier, Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon are all successful here, illustrating the region’s varied and dynamic climate. Eden Valley is home to Yalumba, Pewsey Vale, and Henschke, producer of the famed Hill of Grace and its precursor, the Mount Edelstone Shiraz.

Western Australia

Margaret River GI, a coastal region within the South West Australia zone, is the state’s most acclaimed appellation, with production almost evenly split between red and white wines. Chardonnay, Semillon, and Sauvignon Blanc—and blends of the latter two—are successful in the maritime climate, but gravelly, elegant Cabernet Sauvignon and Bordeaux-style red blends inspire the highest praise. Cullen, Vasse Felix, Leeuwin Estate and Cape Mentelle are among the region’s best-known producers. The large Great Southern GI, to the east of Margaret River along the southern coastline, is the state’s second-most prominent region. There are five subregions: Mount Barker, Frankland River, Albany, Porongurup, and Denmark. Mount Barker today excels with cool-climate Riesling, Shiraz, and Cabernet Sauvignon.

Western Australia is the country’s largest state, and the wine regions within are the country’s most isolated—over 1,300 miles separate Perth, on Western Australia’s coast, from Adelaide in South Australia. Three enormous zones cover the inland and southern coast: Central Western Australia zone; Eastern Plains, Inland and North of Western Australia zone; and West Australian South East Coastal zone. The majority of viticulture is conducted along the state’s southwestern coast, in the zones of South West Australia and Greater Perth. In fact, wine production since 1970 has been steadily shifting from the hot regions within Greater Perth—Swan Valley GI is the hottest appellation in Australia—to the cooler regions of South West Australia.

Queensland

Queensland is not a major grape-growing state in Australia, although production is on the increase. Vineyards in the state’s two regions, Granite Belt and South Burnett, date to 1965 and 1993 respectively. Granite Belt experiences a continental climate with plentiful summer rain, yet growing patterns for Shiraz and Semillon in the region are moderated by high altitude and cooler mountain air. The more northerly South Burnett is subtropical. The unofficial region of Darling Downs, directly south of South Burnett, seems poised to become the state’s third GI in the future.

Tasmania

South of Victoria, the island state of Tasmania is Australia’s coolest wine-producing area. Tasmania is the sole GI, although unofficial regions exist and the island can be broadly divided between the northern and southern sectors. The climate of Northern Tasmania is similar to that of Champagne or the Rheingau, and Southern Tasmania is even cooler, although long sunshine hours during the growing season promote slow, even ripening. White grapes, particularly Chardonnay and Riesling, are popular, but PInot Noir is by far the most planted grape variety. Pinot Noir can flourish, especially in the Pipers River area, and cool-climate Cabernet Sauvignon can be successful in the Tamar Valley and Coal River areas. Overall, the island’s climate is perfectly suited for sparkling winemaking, as finesse, elegance, and acidity can be maintained. Tasmania’s traditional method sparkling wines are among Australia’s best efforts in the category.

New Zealand

Although a Christian missionary first planted vines on New Zealand’s North Island in 1819, the first record of actual wine production dates to the late 1830s, when James Busby, a British minister involved in early viticultural efforts in New South Wales, planted a small vineyard from French and Spanish cuttings at his estate in Northland.

Busby’s enthusiasm—he wrote three treatises on viticulture prior to penning some of New Zealand’s seminal political documents—did not translate into rapid development; rather wine production slowly increased throughout the 1800s with an influx of Croatian, French, Spanish, and German settlers. Beer production outpaced wine; however, and near the turn of the century the Department of Agriculture charged Romeo Bragato, an Austrian viticulturist from Victoria, with the task of studying the nation’s vineyards and combating its newest scourge: phylloxera. Bragato identified many of New Zealand’s modern wine regions (with the important exception of Marlborough) and educated growers on the merits of grafting vines onto disease-resistant American rootstock. Unfortunately, a simmering temperance movement in the country stymied this promising start to the 20th century, and the Department of Agriculture’s Viticultural Division was disbanded in 1909. “Six o’clock swill,” an early closing hour for pubs instituted in both Australia and New Zealand during World War I, lasted until 1967 on the North and South Islands of New Zealand. The early closing time of six o’clock was a move by anti-alcohol forces in the country to return men to their wives at a respectable hour, and those in the business of selling alcohol capitulated, preferring such a restriction to outright prohibition. While New Zealand narrowly avoided national prohibition, calls for abstinence imperiled the future of New Zealand’s small industry, as growers planted low quality fruit that could be sold as table grapes if the vote went against them. Furthermore, many of these lower quality grapes were hybrids and thus immune to the ravages of phylloxera—Bragato’s recommendations lay forgotten in a climate of hysteria. While hybrids offered relief from phylloxera, New Zealand’s wine industry was setting back its chances to find an international market by decades—in 1960, “Albany Surprise” was New Zealand’s most planted variety. Depression hampered sales in the 1930s, and cheap imported wines were readily available. Wine shops were not allowed to sell single bottles of wine until 1955, and restaurants first gained the right to sell wine in 1960. A winery itself could not sell a glass of wine until 1976, and the country’s last “dry” areas—relics of the temperance movement—persisted until the 1990s. Impediments confronted New Zealand’s domestic industry on all sides, and the country’s general isolation from the rest of the world left New Zealanders without much recourse. However, as the country relaxed alcohol law, and the advent of commercial jetliners made travel—particularly to Europe—more viable from the late 1950s onward, New Zealand’s wine industry could prepare itself to compete internationally. In the 1970s, European Vitis vinifera vines gradually began to replace the hybrid and table grape plantings—a process hastened by a government-sponsored vine pull scheme in 1986. An emphasis on the importance of canopy management and site selection in the 1980s and 1990s followed, vastly improving the mean quality of the wines.

From 1960 to 2019, New Zealand’s vineyard acreage increased exponentially, from approximately 400 ha to over 38,000 ha. A total of approximately 100 wineries in the mid-1980s ballooned to 716 wineries in the country in 2019. New Zealand’s modern fortunes are founded on Marlborough on the South Island and the Sauvignon Blanc grape. Montana, New Zealand’s largest winemaking company, established Marlborough’s first commercial vineyard in 1973, released the country’s first varietal wine (Gisborne Chardonnay), and produced one of the first Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc wines in 1979; but Cloudy Bay Vineyards, launched in 1985, put the region on the map. Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc was something utterly upfront, piercing and pungent; highly intense aromas of passion fruit, jalapeño, ripe grapefruit, and grass filled out Sauvignon Blanc’s racy structure, and the wine became an international sensation. As of 2024, nearly 70% of New Zealand’s vineyards were located in Marlborough, and over 60% of the country’s total acreage was planted with Sauvignon Blanc. But it is not the country’s only variety of note; there are significant plantings of Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Pinot Gris, Merlot, Riesling, Syrah, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Gewürztraminer, and all are bottled as varietal wines. Sparkling wines of good quality are also produced, particularly in Marlborough.

New Zealand is the world’s easternmost and southernmost winemaking country: the South Island lies on the same latitude as Tasmania, but over 1,200 miles of ocean separate the two. The South Island is the larger of the two landmasses, and is divided along its spine by the Southern Alps—rain clouds moving eastward from the Tasman Sea deposit all of their moisture high in the mountains, resulting in a rain shadow effect for the wine regions of the island. The warmer North Island is less mountainous, and generally much rainier. On the extreme uppermost end of the North Island, Northland’s latitude is comparable to that of Jerez in Spain—although its climate is more often likened to that of Bordeaux—whereas Central Otago, the southernmost wine region in the world, lies on the 45th parallel. Winemaking regions run along a north-south axis on the eastern coastline of the islands; however, the effect of the ocean mitigates temperature variation and moderates the growing season. Abundant sunshine hours on the South Island aid ripening while the consistently cool nights allow grapes to retain acidity and the zesty character so prized in the country’s whites.

New Zealand’s vineyards are typically planted on flat expanses and most are located within twenty miles of the eastern coastline. As in Australia, mechanical harvesting is common—a consistently cheap source of manual labor is difficult to find in the sparsely populated country. Unlike Australia, with its huge irrigated agricultural zones, New Zealand has little land to spare; thus, modern bulk wine production is not economically feasible—there is no New Zealand equivalent to California’s Central Valley or Australia’s Riverland. Producers overall have concentrated on higher price points in the global wine market. In fact, New Zealand wine on average commands a higher price per bottle than any other country in the world. However, this position is threatened by the recent release and influx of cheaper Sauvignon Blanc wines, especially in the British market—an unfortunate turn of events for the country’s serious producers, who have worked so hard collectively to craft the modern image of premium New Zealand wines.

All New Zealand producers and growers belong to New Zealand Winegrowers, an organization formed in 2002 as a joint initiative of the Grape Growers Council and the New Zealand Wine Institute. New Zealand Winegrowers promotes and presents a unified face for New Zealand wine, building on the past successes of its parent organizations. Undoubtedly, the organization will greatly influence the structure and codification of New Zealand’s emerging appellation system. In addition, a group of New Zealand producers pioneered the Screwcap Initiative in 2001, an international association committed to using the closure—even on ultra-premium bottlings. Although both Swiss and Australian wineries were using the closure prior to its widespread adoption in New Zealand, the screwcap has become synonymous with Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc, and the runaway success of the wine simultaneously raised public acceptance of the closure. Kim Crawford in Marlborough was the first to commercially release a New Zealand wine under screwcap; today over 95% of the country’s wines are finished with the closure.

Major wine regions on the North Island include Northland, Auckland, Waikato/Bay of Plenty, Gisborne, Hawkes Bay, and Wairarapa. The major regions of the South Island are Nelson, Marlborough, Canterbury, and Central Otago. In 2006, New Zealand passed the Geographical Indications (Wine and Spirits) Registration Act; however this act was not put into action until July 2017. Soon thereafter eighteen wine regions submitted applications for GI status. New Zealand has 22 official GIs, including New Zealand GI, North Island GI, and South Island GI, which cannot be changed or modified. In addition to increasing visibility abroad, GI status brings an added layer of protection in the international marketplace. In line with European standards, New Zealand wines must contain a minimum 85% of a stated grape or vintage. When labeled with a GI, 85% of grapes must come from the stated GI. For spirits that are labelled with a GI, 100% of the spirit must come from the GI. As in other New World countries, there are no laws governing enrichment, acidification, pruning, yields, or irrigation techniques.

North Island

New Zealand’s first vines were planted in Northland in 1819, but there is no record of wines being produced. The region is New Zealand’s northernmost and smallest area of production, contributing less than 1% of the country’s total production. In 2019, only 20 wineries were in operation. Waikato/Bay of Plenty covers a much larger area, but with only 3 hectares planted to vines, it contributes very little towards the region's total production—as of 2019, there were no registered wineries. Auckland, named for New Zealand’s largest city, is located between Northland and Waikato/Bay of Plenty. Despite its 1960s status as New Zealand’s largest region, production has shrunk significantly and now represents 1% of the national total. Chardonnay, Syrah, and Merlot lead in acreage with special attention paid to Merlot-based Cabernet blends. The subregions of Kumeu, Waiheke Island and Matakana, are highly regarded. Auckland is the traditional center of the wine business in New Zealand; both Montana (now under the Pernod Ricard NZ umbrella) and Villa Maria are headquartered here. All three regions experience a moderate, rainy maritime climate; rot and frost are among the chief viticultural hazards. Among Auckland’s nested GIs, the hilly Waiheke Island enjoys a singularly sunny, dry climate, especially on its lower western side, where many of the region's wineries are clustered.

The bulk of the North Island’s production is concentrated in the central and southern regions of Gisborne, Hawkes Bay, and Wairarapa. Hawkes Bay is the second largest region in the country, and the North Island's driest climate. Chardonnay and Merlot are the region’s most planted varieties, though Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Gris, Syrah, and Cabernet Sauvignon are all widely cultivated. Hawkes Bay is one of the most important red wine regions. A range of altitudes, coupled with a diverse and complex pattern of soils, from greywacke gravel to heavy silt to sandy loam, suggests the development of a large number of future subregions. Gimblett Gravels, an area of deep shingle soils, is rapidly establishing a reputation as a source of good Syrah and Bordeaux-style blends, and already appears on a number of labels as a trademarked brand. Other notable subregions include Bridge Pa, Esk Valley and Dartmoor Valley.

Gisborne, also known as Poverty Bay, is overwhelmingly planted with white grapes—the first vines in the world to see the sun each day. Chardonnay has replaced Müller-Thurgau as the region’s most planted grape, as the region—New Zealand’s fifth largest producer—attempts to overcome its past reputation as a bastion of carafe wines and lower quality. Pinot Gris, Gewürztraminer, and Viognier also perform well in the region, but red grapes simply struggle to ripen in the cool climate. Wairarapa is the southernmost region on the North Island. The entire region is officially named Wellington—it includes New Zealand’s capital city—but Wairarapa is the only wine district in the region. Pinot Noir and Sauvignon Blanc are particularly successful, particularly in the subregion of Martinborough.

South Island

Nelson, the northernmost region on the South Island, is New Zealand’s sunniest wine-producing region. Paradoxically, it is also the rainiest region on the South Island. Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Noir, Pinot Gris, and Chardonnay compose over 90% of the region’s vineyard acreage, excelling in the cool climate. Despite its proximity to Marlborough, high land prices and low availability constrain the efforts of New Zealand’s major producers to make wine on a large scale, and the region contributes only 3% of New Zealand's total wine. In contrast, Marlborough produces nearly 70% of the entire country’s wine, with over 26,000 hectares of Sauvignon Blanc alone. Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Pinot Gris, and Riesling are the next most-planted grapes, although even the combined acreage trails that of Sauvignon Blanc significantly. Montana, through subsidiary wineries such as Brancott and Fairhall, controls nearly two-thirds of Marlborough’s vineyards, and maintains a solidly high quality despite its reach and size. The region has also gained a reputation for traditional method sparkling wines, from many of the same producers who made Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc a household name: Cloudy Bay, Kim Crawford, and Hunter’s. In 1988, a partnership forged between Montana and Deutz of Champagne to produce premium sparkling wines cemented Marlborough’s future in the world of bubbly. Average maximum summertime temperatures of 75 degrees Fahrenheit are moderated by cool nights, and the dry, lengthy growing season allows grapes to ripen while retaining fresh, crisp character—an asset for both sparkling production and Sauvignon Blanc. Soil in the three major subregions—the northern Wairau Valley, the central Southern Valleys, and the southernmost Awatere Valley—is generally composed of sandy, alluvial loam topsoil over gravel, providing excellent drainage and limiting vine vigor. Some sites are more water-retentive, and induce a more herbaceous character in the final wine. Irrigation is widespread.

Vineyards at Felton Road in Central Otago.

South of Marlborough, Canterbury was, in the early 2000s, New Zealand’s fastest-growing wine region, due in large part to the success of its northern subregion Waipara Valley. Growth has since tapered off, with total production from Waipara and Canterbury totaling 4% of wine production country wide. Although winemaking on the Banks Peninsula (an historical subregion, though not considered a subregion today) dates to 1840, the more recently developed Waipara contains the majority of the region’s vineyards. Pinot Noir, Sauvignon Blanc, Riesling, and Pinot Gris are successful here. Pinot Noir takes center stage further south, in Central Otago—the world’s southernmost region, and the country’s highest in altitude. Central Otago is the only region in the country to experience a truly continental climate, with greater seasonal temperature extremes than any of the country’s maritime regions. Diurnal temperature swings are also quite significant, and winemakers take advantage of the sun by planting on northern hillside exposures—southern-facing slopes are often too cool for viticulture. Low humidity prevents rot, but spring frosts are a costly problem and in cooler years winemakers have great difficulty coaxing ripeness from the grapes at all. Pinot Noir emerged as the variety of choice in this marginal climate in the late 1990s, and as vine age and expertise with the grape grow, the future for Pinot Noir seems very bright. In fact, Central Otago Pinot Noir, epitomized by producers such as Felton Road, Mt. Difficulty, and Rippon, can compete with anything the New World has to offer. Central Otago’s best-known subregions include Wanaka, Gibbston, Alexandra, and Cromwell Basin.

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South Africa

user22387 — Sun, 09 Feb 2025 11:44:18 GMT

Current Revision posted to Study-Guide by user22387 on 2/9/2025 11:44:18 AM

Table of Contents

South Africa
Coastal Region
Breede River Valley Region
Klein Karoo Region
Olifants River Region
Cape South Coast Region
Toward the Future
Review Quizzes

South Africa

The history of the vine in South Africa can be traced to 1652, when Jan van Riebeeck of the Dutch East India Company founded Cape Town and established its first vineyard.

The first wines of the colony, derided by contemporaries for their “revolting sourness,” emerged seven years later to sustain sailors bound for the East Indies on the long ocean voyage. But with the arrival of French Huguenots fleeing religious persecution in their homeland in the late 1680s and early 1690s came a new wealth of winemaking knowledge. The Huguenots settled between Paarl and Stellenbosch in a region that became known as Franschhoek (meaning “French Quarter”) and established vineyards. Around this same time, Governor Simon van der Stel’s Constantia estate eclipsed the modest winemaking tradition of his predecessors and introduced sweet Vin de Constance, then called the "governor's wine," to the world. This wine would be coveted throughout the courts of Europe and holds its prestige even now, over 300 years later. Founded near Cape Town in 1685, Constantia—now a ward of the Coastal Region—was divided into three estates upon van der Stel’s death in 1712. In 1778, Groot Constantia, one of these estates, was sold to Hendrik Cloete, who renovated the property and brought international acclaim to the wines.

Bush vine Pinotage (Photo credit: Kelli White)

South African wines flourished under British colonial rule, but in the latter half of the 19th century, powdery mildew and phylloxera struck. Compounding the industry’s misfortunes, the British finally abolished preferential tariffs in 1861, renewing competition with French wines. In the absence of such tariffs, Cape wines—often heavily treated with sulfur dioxide and fortified with poor brandy—simply could not compete in quality against French and German wines abroad or even at home. In addition, wines from the southernmost tip of Africa faced expensive ocean transit rather than a short hop across the English Channel, and the Cape’s export trade suffered greatly. The state purchased Groot Constantia in 1885, and the root louse appeared on the property, ravaging the famous vineyards. A golden era for Constantia ended, and South African vineyards, decimated by phylloxera and colonial war at the turn of the century, entered a period of decline.

In the wake of phylloxera, South African producers turned to American rootstocks and high-yielding vines, but surplus soon outstripped local demand, and overproduction—a longstanding problem for the South African industry—continued. In the face of plummeting prices and oversupply, the Ko-operatieve Wijnbouwers Vereniging van Zuid-Afrika (KWV) formed in 1918 with the support of 90% of South Africa’s growers. The KWV, a cooperative of wine producers and growers, fixed minimum prices, determined areas of production, and established production limits—powers formalized in the 1924 Wine and Spirits Control Act. It pulled the industry back from the brink of disaster but favored large producers and rewarded lower quality, as it set viable prices even for distillation wine. Surpluses, essentially subsidized by the KWV, continued through the 1980s, and despite a shift in domestic drinking habits from fortified wines to table wines in the mid-20th century, South Africa’s wine industry did not encourage high quality. Apartheid, the segregationist system instituted by South Africa in the late 1940s, further hampered efforts at renewing international interest in the country's wines. However, the end of apartheid in 1994 and the transformation of the KWV into a private company in 1997 spurred a great renewal in the industry. International eco-nomic sanctions and boycotts were lifted, opening export markets, and the KWV relinquished its statutory powers and scrapped quotas as early as 1992, encouraging growers to focus on quality. In 1999, the South African Wine Industry Trust (SAWIT) was established to speed transformation of South African wine and to empower black workers in an industry that had long relied on slave- and apartheid-era labor practices. In 2002, the South African Wine and Spirit Board began to offer quality certification through SAWIS (South African Wine Industry Information and Systems) in accordance with the Wine of Origin (WO) scheme, South Africa’s appellation system. By 2005, South Africa was exporting 280 million liters annually—nearly five times the amount exported in 1994. Today, South Africa ranks seventh in volume among wine-producing countries worldwide, accounting for 3.9% of global wine production.

The regions of South Africa (Courtesy of SAWIS)

The Wine of Origin system, introduced in 1973, compels producers seeking certification to submit a sample of their wines for evaluation by a tasting panel, which confirms that each wine shows the correct organoleptic qualities for its cultivar (variety) and age. The wine also undergoes scientific analysis. An approved cultivar—approximately 90 are authorized, irrespective of region—must be used to attain WO status, and as of 2006, the wine must contain 85% of the stated grape. Blends may list several grapes, if vinification occurred separately and each listed grape comprises a minimum 20% of the wine. A minimum 85% of the stated vintage is also required. If an area of production appears on the label, 100% of grapes must come from the stated area.

There are four types of production areas, in descending order of size: geographical unit, region, district, and ward. A single vineyard may be listed on a label if the wine is sourced solely from a vineyard that is appropriately registered and of less than six hectares. Estate wines must be produced from contiguous parcels of vineyard land and vinified and bottled on a single property. A WO seal appears on all bottles of South African wine that pass certification. While it is an entirely voluntary process, none of the above claims—vintage, variety, or area of production—may legally appear on any bottle that forgoes certification.

In 1998, South Africa launched the Integrated Production of Wine Scheme (IPW), a voluntary means of certification for WO producers wishing to comply with sustainable environmental standards. The IPW sets guidelines for agricultural, manufacturing, and packaging practices, and certification falls under the jurisdiction of the SA Wine and Spirit Board. Wineries are judged on a number of points, including worker safety measures, handling of wastewater, carbon emissions, use of pesticides and other chemicals, and vineyard biodiversity. Starting with the 2010 vintage, wines that meet a minimum score in IPW evaluation (60% or better) and qualify for WO certification are marked with a joint seal, indicating a "sustainable wine of origin," rather than the basic WO seal. Today, over 95% of South African WO wines carry this seal.

South Africa’s wine-producing areas are divided into seven large geographical areas based on political boundaries (GIs): Western Cape, Northern Cape, Eastern Cape, North West, Kwazulu-Natal, Limpopo, and Free State. Northern Cape consists of only six production areas: the region of Karoo-Hoogland, the Douglas, Sutherland-Karoo, and Central Orange River districts, and the independent Hartswater and Prieska wards. Eastern Cape has a single ward (St. Francis Bay) and Kwazulu-Natal contains the Central Drakensberg and Lions River districts. Limpopo and North West do not contain further delineations. The Free State holds an independent ward, Rietrivier FS.

The districts of South Africa (Courtesy of SAWIS)

Most South African wine production occurs in the Western Cape, a small area in the southwestern corner of the country. Most WO areas are contained within it, including the Coastal Region, Cape South Coast, Breede River Valley, Klein Karoo, and Olifants River. At a latitude of 27° to 34°, the Western Cape’s climate is essentially Mediterranean, with warm, sunny growing seasons, although the Benguela Current flows north from Antarctica to cool the coastal areas. The Cape Doctor, a notoriously strong southeasterly wind, blows across the Western Cape throughout the spring and summer, inhibiting fungal disease and moderating temperature—but also ferociously battering the vines. The Cape South Coasts’ Elgin, offers the coolest climate in the country. In contrast, the Northern Cape production areas along the Orange River experience a hot, arid climate and are generally only suitable for bulk wines.

Since the early 1990s, South African producers have replanted nearly half of the nation’s vineyards with quality focused varieties. White varieties make up the majority of South Africa's vineyard landscape. Chenin Blanc, known locally as Steen, is the most planted white grape, occupying about 18.4% of the nation’s vineyards. Other important white grapes include Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Hanepoot (Muscat of Alexandria), Colombard, Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains, and Semillon. Red grapes have surged in acreage since the mid-1990s. Pinotage, a crossing of Cinsault and Pinot Noir developed by Professor Abraham Perold in 1924, has been referred to by some as South Africa’s signature red grape. Depending on viticulture and vinification the variety cal yield different styles of wines. Until recently, it was infamous for distinctively smoky and pungent aromas. Today, it is a variety driven by producer style with Kanonkop leading the way. Cinsault itself, one of the grapes responsible for much of the past surplus, has lost its status as South Africa’s most planted red variety to Cabernet Sauvignon (10.6% of plantings) with Syrah/Shiraz as a close second (10% of plantings). Merlot, Cinsault, and Pinot Noir are among the other important commercial red cultivars. Pontac, a teinturier grape linked to the old red wines of Constantia, enjoys a limited revival among dedicated producers. Traditional method sparkling wines known as Méthode Cap Classique (MCC) are increasingly produced from Chardonnay and Pinot Noir, and fortified styles include Cape Port and Sherry—terms that were phased out in 2012. Cape Port today is generally named according to its style: Cape Tawny, Cape Ruby, and so forth.

Coastal Region

South Africa’s Coastal Region is located around the original colony of Cape Town and along the western coast of the Cape. Most of the country's high-quality wine originates here. The region is subdivided into nine districts: Stellenbosch, Cape Town, Paarl, Tulbagh, Darling, Franschhoek Valley, Lutzville Valley, Wellington, and Swartland. Cape Town was introduced in 2017 and contains the wards of Constantia, Hout Bay, Durbanville, and Philadelphia. Five estates occupy the historic Constantia vineyard on the eastern, decomposed granite slopes of Constantiaberg, including the state-owned Groot Constantia, Klein Constantia, and Buitenverwachting (translating to “Beyond Expectations”). Despite the fabled glory of Vin de Constance, several of the new proprietors are focusing on international grapes and dry wines. However, Klein (meaning “little”) Constance revived the virtually extinct style with new Muscat de Frontignan plantings in the 1980s. Cool sea breezes blow northward from False Bay, and average February temperatures hover around 70 degrees Fahrenheit, promoting a lengthy growing season ideal for dessert wines and cool-climate white grapes like Sauvignon Blanc.

Stellenbosch (Photo credit: Kelli White)

Across False Bay from the Cape Peninsula is the Stellenbosch district, South Africa’s most prominent winemaking region. With viticultural roots dating back to the 17th century, the “Town of Oaks” has become the epicenter of viticultural and oenological research for the country, and it is a source of high-quality red wines. The valleys surrounding Stellenbosch, cradled between the Simonsberg, Stellenbosch, and Helderberg peaks, harbor just over 15% of South Africa’s vines and contain some of the world’s most ancient soils, ranging from alluvial loam over shale on the valley floors to decomposed granite and sandstone on the hillsides. Cabernet Sauvignon and Sauvignon Blanc are the district’s two most planted varieties, followed by Merlot, Shiraz, and Chenin Blanc. With a maritime-influenced climate comparable to—but warmer than—Bordeaux, blended reds based on Cabernet Sauvignon, such as Warwick Estate’s “Trilogy” and Meerlust’s “Rubicon,” garner high praise. Kanonkop (a champion of Pinotage), Rust en Vrede, and Neil Ellis round out a sampling of highly regarded producers in the district. Wards within Stellenbosch include Devon Valley, Jonkershoek Valley, Papegaaiberg, Simonsberg-Stellenbosch, Bottelary, Banghoek, and the Polkadraai Hills.

North of Stellenbosch, the warmer inland Paarl (meaning “pearl”) district is home to the KWV, a founding partner in SAWIT. With over 40 bottlings in its range, Nederburg is the district’s largest producer and the first house to produce a botrytised dessert wine in South Africa. The renowned Nederburg Wine Auction, an auction of rare Cape wines, has taken place in Paarl since 1975. In its first year, the oldest annual wine auction outside of Europe showcased Golden Liquid Nederburg Edelkeur. The district rivals Stellenbosch in production and is successful with varieties like Cabernet Sauvignon, Shiraz, Pinotage, Chenin Blanc, and Chardonnay. Until 2010, Paarl included Franschhoek Valley, the site claimed by French Huguenot settlers in the late 17th century, among its wards, but the historic valley has now achieved status as a separate district. In 2012, Wellington followed suit. Tulbagh is a smaller district located to the north of Paarl. Its higher altitude creates a significant diurnal temperature shift, and MCC production there is increasing.

Breede River Valley Region

The Breede River Valley comprises three districts: Robertson, Worcester, and Breedekloof. A fourth district, Swellendam, shifted to the Cape South Coast region in late 2010. Breedekloof and Worcester, the largest district in South Africa in terms of production, produce over 25% of the national volume of wine and spirits (generally brandy), and nearly 20% of the nation’s vine acreage is located in these two districts. In Worcester, there are sizable plantings of Colombard, Chenin Blanc, and Ruby Cabernet. Robertson is a higher quality area, known equally for its MCC and red wine production. Shiraz is emerging as one of the district’s finest varietal wines.

Klein Karoo Region

Klein Karoo is an arid inland region with two districts: Langeberg-Garcia and Calitzdorp. The region’s six wards are not contained within either district. Fortified and sweet wine production is the dominant focus. Muscat and Tinta Barroca are the most promising grapes of the region.

Olifants River Region

The Olifants River Region includes two districts—Citrusdal Mountain and Citrusdal Valley—and is located to the north of Swartland. Colombard and Chenin Blanc are chiefly purposed for bulk wines, and South Africa’s largest co-operative winery, Namaqua, is based here. The region is home to two of the country's most famous sites, the ward of Piekenierskloof is well known for Grenache, and the single vineyard of Skurfburg which is famous for old vine Chenin Blanc South Africa’s highest elevation vineyards are located in Cederberg, an unincorporated ward located to the east of the Olifants River Region.

Cape South Coast Region

Hemel-en-Aarde (Photo credit: Kelli White)

Seven districts comprise the Cape South Coast Region. Four of these districts—Overberg, Elgin, Walker Bay, and Cape Agulhas—line the southwestern Atlantic Coast of South Africa. A fifth, Plettenberg Bay, lies over 250 miles to the east, along the southern coast of Africa. Swellendam, borders Overberg to the east, near the Breede River Valley, and the small Lower Duivenhoks River district lies even further east.

Overberg is divided into four wards: Klein River, Theewater, Elandskloof, and Greyton. Elgin, previously a fifth ward of Overberg, received district status in early 2012. Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Noir, and even Riesling are showing good results in the cooler maritime climate of both districts. The Walker Bay district, a whale-watcher's delight, surrounds the coastal town of Hermanus and is showing success with Pinot Noir and Chardonnay as well as consistently high-quality examples of Pinotage. Hamilton Russell Winery, a pioneer in the district, was an early proponent of the Burgundy grapes as well as Pinotage. Walker Bay contains seven wards; its top areas of production are Bot River and Hemel-en-Aarde (or “Heaven and Earth”) Valley. The windy Cape Agulhas sits on the southernmost point of the continent, with vineyards concentrated in the single ward of Elim. This district’s cool climate is provoking excitement for the region’s Sauvignon Blanc, Semillon, and Shiraz.

Toward the Future

Despite the rich history of Constantia, South Africa is still in its infancy as a winemaking region. Styles and regions continue to evolve at a rapid pace as producers carve out a distinct South African identity in a global wine market. Chenin Blanc has achieved success in the country and offers a uniquely marketable varietal expression. South Africa's unique Pinotage is also showing more potential in the right hands in recent years. With proper understanding, careful viticulture, and thoughtful winemaking, this grape can offer a singular expression for the country. Indeed, South Africa is a developing frontier for wine and a country to watch over the coming decade.

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Updated January 2025

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Australia and New Zealand

user22387 — Mon, 03 Feb 2025 16:40:36 GMT

Revision 124 posted to Study-Guide by user22387 on 2/3/2025 4:40:36 PM

Table of Contents

Australia
Wine Australia
New South Wales
Victoria
South Australia
Western Australia
Queensland
Tasmania
New Zealand
Review Quizzes

Australia

In its earliest days as an English penal colony, Australia’s winemaking suffered from little expertise. However, free settlers from Europe began to arrive, spurred by the promise of gold, and the vine flourished, spreading from New South Wales throughout the southeast by 1850. Over 6000 liters of wine was exported to Britain by 1854. A burgeoning population thirsted for wine in the colony as well, and many small wineries sprung up throughout New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, and South Australia to meet the new demand. Penfolds and Lindemans, two of Australia’s most recognizable brands—both are now owned by Treasury Wine Estates—launched during this early period. However, as the easily extractable surface and stream deposits of gold depleted, many prospectors followed, and domestic demand for wine fell. Lowered demand, coupled with restrictive state trade barriers, led some producers to export to survive, whereas others remained small and localized—a division that exists, in exacerbated form, to this day. Economic recession and phylloxera befell Australia in the latter half of the 19th century, further harming the industry, but officials took strict and immediate measures to combat the spread of phylloxera, confining it to Victoria and a portion of New South Wales. While the root louse decimated the Victorian wine industry—Australia’s most important wine area in the late 1800s—it cleared the way for South Australia to emerge as the continent’s largest region of production. A second key factor in South Australia’s rise to prominence was the creation of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901, as federation brought a relaxation of the interstate trade barriers. Today, the state of South Australia annually produces 51% of the nation’s grapes, and most of Australia’s largest wine groups are headquartered there.

The FOB (free on board) price includes the cost of delivery to the port of exit; in this arrangement, liability transfers from seller to buyer at that point (Graph courtesy of Wine Australia)

Wine Australia

New South Wales

Victoria

South Australia

To the north of Coonawarra, Padthaway GI also includes areas of terra rossa soil and produces a similar style of Cabernet. Despite its slightly warmer climate, 35% of its vineyards are planted to white grapes; Riesling, Pinot Grigio, and Chardonnay account for nearly 45% of the production. The newer GIs of Wrattonbully, Robe, Mount Benson, and Mount Gambier compose the remainder of the Limestone Coast regions. Overall, red grapes dominate this cool-climate zone.

Western Australia

Queensland

Tasmania

New Zealand

All New Zealand producers and growers belong to New Zealand Winegrowers, an organization formed in 2002 as a joint initiative of the Grape Growers Council and the New Zealand Wine Institute. New Zealand Winegrowers promotes and presents a unified face for New Zealand wine, building on the past successes of its parent organizations. Undoubtedly, the organization will greatly influence the structure and codification of New Zealand’s emerging appellation system. In addition, a group of New Zealand producers pioneered the Screwcap Initiative in 2001, an international association committed to using the closure—even on ultra-premium bottlings. Although both Swiss and Australian wineries were using the closure prior to its widespread adoption in New Zealand, the screwcap has become synonymous with Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc, and the runaway success of the wine simultaneously raised public acceptance of the closure. Kim Crawford in Marlborough was the first to commercially release a New Zealand wine under screwcap; today over 85% of the country’s wines are finished with the closure.

Major wine regions on the North Island include Northland, Auckland, Waikato/Bay of Plenty, Gisborne, Hawkes Bay, and Wairarapa. The major regions of the South Island are Nelson, Marlborough, Canterbury, and Central Otago. In 2006, New Zealand passed the Geographical Indications (Wine and Spirits) Registration Act; however this act was not put into action until July 2017. Soon thereafter eighteen wine regions submitted applications for GI status. As of February 2022, New Zealand has 22 official GIs, including New Zealand GI, North Island GI, and South Island GI, which cannot be changed or modified. In addition to increasing visibility abroad, GI status brings an added layer of protection in the international marketplace. In line with European standards, New Zealand wines must contain a minimum 85% of a stated grape or vintage. When labeled with a GI, 85% of grapes must come from the stated GI. For spirits that are labelled with a GI, 100% of the spirit must come from the GI. As in other New World countries, there are no laws governing enrichment, acidification, pruning, yields, or irrigation techniques.

North Island

South Island

Vineyards at Felton Road in Central Otago.

South of Marlborough, Canterbury was, in the early 2000s, New Zealand’s fastest-growing wine region, due in large part to the success of its northern subregion Waipara Valley. Growth has since tapered off, with total production from Waipara and Canterbury totalling 4% of wine production country wide. Although winemaking on the Banks Peninsula (an historical subregion, though not considered a subregion today) dates to 1840, the more recently developed Waipara contains the majority of the region’s vineyards. Pinot Noir, Sauvignon Blanc, Riesling, and Pinot Gris are successful here. Pinot Noir takes center stage further south, in Central Otago—the world’s southernmost region, and the country’s highest in altitude. Central Otago is the only region in the country to experience a truly continental climate, with greater seasonal temperature extremes than any of the country’s maritime regions. Diurnal temperature swings are also quite significant, and winemakers take advantage of the sun by planting on northern hillside exposures—southern-facing slopes are often too cool for viticulture. Low humidity prevents rot, but spring frosts are a costly problem and in cooler years winemakers have great difficulty coaxing ripeness from the grapes at all. Pinot Noir emerged as the variety of choice in this marginal climate in the late 1990s, and as vine age and expertise with the grape grow, the future for Pinot Noir seems very bright. In fact, Central Otago Pinot Noir, epitomized by producers such as Felton Road, Mt. Difficulty, and Rippon, can compete with anything the New World has to offer. Central Otago’s best-known subregions include Wanaka, Gibbston, Alexandra, and Cromwell Basin.

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Spain

user22387 — Fri, 31 Jan 2025 03:02:46 GMT

Current Revision posted to Study-Guide by user22387 on 1/31/2025 3:02:46 AM

Table of Contents

Spain
North-Central Spain
Green Spain: Galicia and Basque Country
Castilla y León
Catalonia (Catalunya)
Southern Spain
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Spain

The Phoenicians, one of the first great maritime trading cultures, founded the city of Gadir (modern Cádiz) on the coast of southern Spain around 1100 BCE and established the value of viticulture and wine as a commodity in Andalucía.

The wine trade of the eastern Mediterranean owes a significant debt to Phoenician ships: the grapes they carried from the Middle East to North Africa, the Mediterranean islands and the Iberian peninsula represent the genetic ancestors of some of the modern varieties of Spain. However, while the Phoenicians may have introduced viticulture in Spain, evidence of primitive grape cultivation reaches thousands of years back in time, and wild grapes preceded mankind in the region. Winemaking continued under the Romans, who improved on the fragile, large amphorae in use, but it remained a secondary pursuit under the conquering Moors, whose religion forbade the consumption of alcohol. Still, grapegrowing persisted and was often used for raisins and distillation for medicines, perfumes, and other goods. Despite the indifference of the Moors—the sale of wine was illegal, but often tolerated—Spanish wine became renowned for its strength, and found its way as a blending component into wines from France and Italy. During this time, the Catholic church began to expand slowly as well and would soon come to reign in Spain. In 1492, Christopher Columbus and the Spanish explorers opened up a new world for Spanish trade. Wine benefitted greatly from these related occurrences: with the law’s renewed approval, Spanish wine went forth with Spanish ships to supply the nation’s new colonies, and the inherently heavy wines were often made in a deliberately rancio style, or they nonetheless arrived in the West Indies that way. Sherry wines, possibly the first vinous export to North America, became increasingly popular with the English market from the end of the 15th century onward, despite a deteriorating relationship between the two nations that culminated in the English defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588.

The Spanish colonies presented a captive audience for Spanish wines; 17th century Spanish law barred the colonies from producing their own—a move that would impede the nascent New World wine industries and protect Spanish exports like Málaga and Sherry. However, few of Spain’s table wines were of great quality, and Spain was falling behind the rest of Europe in the development of new viticultural techniques. When oidium and phylloxera struck France in the 1850s and 1860s, an abrupt change occurred, particularly in Rioja, where a sudden influx of French winemakers and merchants sought to bridge the interruption of their own disease-ridden vineyards with Spanish wine. During this period the Bordeaux-trained Marqués de Riscal and Marqués de Murrieta returned to Rioja with grape varieties and lessons from the Médoc, including barrique aging (called barricas in Spain) and estate bottling (performed at their newly constructed bodegas). However, a significant alteration to the Bordeaux technique of barrique aging was implemented in Rioja: the Spaniards used American oak (Quercus alba) rather than French—an economic decision based on Spain’s history of transatlantic colonial trade. Many of today’s great traditionalist Rioja wineries got their start in the latter half of the 19th century: López de Heredia, CVNE, La Rioja Alta, and Berceo. The second half of the 19th century also saw the birth of Spanish traditional method sparkling wine—champaña, now known as Cava—at San Sadurní d’Anoia.

The ravages of phylloxera and fungal diseases did not spare Spain, and the root louse arrived in Rioja near the dawn of the 20th century. Nonetheless, Spain focused on quality, and Consejos Reguladores were established for the major regions of Rioja, Jerez, and Málaga in the 1930s. Following a bloody civil war, fascism took hold in Spain under Francisco Franco in the late 1930s, and Spain remained the only major fascist country in Western Europe after World War II—a dark period for wine that would last until the dictator’s death in 1975. The suppression of economic freedom under Franco hindered winemakers, although several advances were made. Miguel Torres brought stainless steel and temperature-controlled fermentations to Catalonia in the 1960s, and the Denominación de Origen regulations were finally approved in 1970 for Rioja. Spain responded to its new freedom after Franco with a simultaneous celebration and diversification of its unique regional cultures. Many Spanish winegrowing regions were reborn in the latter decades of the 20th century, as enthusiastic young vignerons sought to showcase their Spanish identity through modern technique, looking both forward and backward for inspiration. Today, Spain is a diverse mix of experimental, modern, and traditional winemaking techniques, and the country’s wine laws are some of the most adaptable in Europe.

In Spain, Denominación de Origen (DO) and the superior Denominación de Origen Calificada (DOCa) represent the two highest tiers of quality wine, equivalent to the EU’s Protected Designation of Origin (DOP) status. The first DOs were awarded in 1932. Vinos de Calidad con Indicación Geográfica (VCIG), once considered a steppingstone to DO, is also considered DOP in the new European appellation scheme. The lowest level of quality wine, Vino de la Tierra (VdlT), falls within the EU’s Protected Geographical Indication (IGP) scheme. The DO Pago (Vinos de Pago) estates represent a theoretically superior appellation to the basic DO. An estate within an existing DO must surpass the basic DO requirements in DO Pago legislation, typically through lowered yields and other measures suggestive of quality winemaking. In order to apply for DO Pago status, an estate should show international critical praise and a decade's worth of quality production, although some young Pagos have sped through official channels with astonishing speed. Interest in Pagos is notably absent in Spain's top quality appellations, such as Rioja and Ribera del Duero, where producers have nothing to gain from distancing themselves from a well-known brand.

Spanish DO wines are generally eligible for a series of aging designations, provided the below requirements are met. Despite a suggestion of quality, these terms are rapidly disappearing from labels in a new, forward-looking Spain that perceives terms like crianza and reserva as old-fashioned.

With the exception of a few major regions (including Rioja and Ribera del Duero) that have adapted more stringent requirements, the following label definitions are consistent throughout Spain.

Additionally, any DOP wines may use the following aging terminology:

Noble: min. 18 months aging in a cask of less than 600 L or bottle
Añejo: min. 24 months aging in a cask of less than 600 L or bottle
Viejo: min. 36 months aging, demonstrates marked oxidative character

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North Central Spain

North-Central Spain essentially comprises the three autonomías of Navarra, La Rioja, and Aragón. Sheltered by the Pyrenees Mountains to the northeast, which divide France and Spain, and the Cantabrian Mountains to the northwest, the region’s highlands are in a rain shadow, and summer temperatures rise further inland. The Ebro River emerges from the eastern Cantabrian Mountains, and flows on a southeasterly course toward the Mediterranean, passing through the historic Rioja DOCa, Spain’s premier red wine region. Rioja, named not after the Ebro but for the Oja, a smaller tributary, was the first region in Spain to be christened as Denominación de Origen Calificada—in 1991—and has been a viable wine-producing area for over 2000 years. Here, as in the other many of the other major winegrowing regions of Europe, Christian monks guided viticulture in the Middle Ages. The 13th century Benedictine clergyman Gonzalo de Berceo, whose name is commemorated in Berceo’s reserva and gran reserva bottlings, extolled the virtues of Rioja wine in verse. Although he penned his theological works in Latin, he preferred to write his poetry in the “vulgar vernacular” of Spanish, hoping to reach the less educated peasantry. His short verses represent the first Spanish poetry committed to paper, more than a century after the king’s legal recognition of Rioja in 1102. Further decrees protecting the wines’ regional identity were issued by the 17th century, and in the 19th century the style of Rioja wines shifted, subject to French influence. Aging in American oak barrels became a standard, and the red wines started to resemble what is now considered the classic style: soft, with muted red fruit, firm acidity and the unmistakable oak aromas coconut, vanilla and cedar. Today, however, a new spectrum of styles emerges from Rioja, as many producers are emphasizing French oak, more extraction, and riper, darker fruit. A similar dichotomy exists in the region’s white wines: some are produced in a clean, fruity, modern style, whereas others are wood-toned, oxidative and textural. Occasionally, Rioja white wines may be off-dry.

Tempranillo is the main grape of red Rioja and is the most planted grape in the whole country; its traditional blending partners are Mazuelo (Carignan), Graciano, and Garnacha. Together, these four grapes (along with Maturana Tinta, authorized for Rioja in 2007) must comprise a minimum 85% of the red Rioja blend, or 95% if destemmed. “Experimental” grapes such as Cabernet Sauvignon may make up the remainder. Viura—known elsewhere as Macabéo—is the dominant white grape, followed by Garnacha Blanca, Malvasía Riojano, and Maturana Blanca. Chardonnay, Tempranillo Blanco, Sauvignon Blanc, Turruntés, and Verdejo are the only other white grapes permitted in blends. Rosado wines require a minimum 25% of the four previously mentioned primary red grapes of Rioja. As in Ribera del Duero, Rioja regulations for aging red wines supersede the standard requirements. Red crianza wines require a total two years of aging prior to release, with a minimum year in oak. Red reserva wines are aged for three years, including one year in oak. Gran Reserva red wines must age for at least two years in cask and two years in bottle, with a total aging of at least 60 months. Rioja casks must be 225 liters—the size of a barrique. Rioja white wines and rosados are also eligible for these categories: crianza wines age for eighteen months, reserva wines for two years, and gran reserva wines age for four. All three categories require a minimum six months in cask. Whereas producers may age white and rosado crianza wines in a non-oxidative environment like stainless steel, reserva wines must remain in oak or bottle for the minimum period of aging.

From Haro in the northwest to Alfaro in the southeast, Rioja follows the path of the Ebro through three climatically distinct subzones: Rioja Alta, Rioja Alavesa, and Rioja Oriental (formerly Rioja Baja.) Rioja Alavesa is the smallest, northernmost zone (it is located within Basque country) and Tempranillo here often produces vino joven wines for early consumption. Carbonic maceration may be employed for such wines. Rioja Alta is the southwestern zone, and with its slightly warmer climate the zone is capable of producing classic, ageworthy Tempranillo, Mazuelo and Graciano. Rioja Alta and Rioja Alavesa share a similar soil structure, with a high proportion of calcareous clay, whereas Rioja Oriental, the hottest subregion, contains more alluvial soils and ferrous clay. Garnacha performs best in Rioja Oriental's hot climate. Many producers will source blends from all three subregions to create a base style, combining the freshness of Rioja Alavesa, the extract and alcoholic warmth of Rioja Oriental, and the acidity and structure of Rioja Alta. Others, however, prefer the typicity that results from single region and single vineyard bottlings: staunch traditionalist López de Heredia produces single vineyard wines from estate vineyards such as Bosconia and Tondonia; and Ysios—a modern winery renowned for its avant-garde architectural design—produces pure Tempranillo from its estate vineyards in the Rioja Alavesa region. Architecturally, Ysios is at the forefront of a new movement in spectacular modern bodega design sweeping through Rioja. Marqués de Riscal’s estate now includes an impressive new structure designed by Frank Gehry, famed architect of the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, and even de Heredia, the oldest winery in Haro, now features a sleek new visitors’ boutique designed by Zaha Hadid.

Although many producers have made single vineyard bottles for decades, there was no official single vineyard category until legislation passed in 2017. As of 2018, producers may register their Viñedos Singulares and print official single vineyard names on their labels. To be a single vineyard, the vineyard's soil must be assessed, the vines must be at least 35 years old, the estate must have proof that it has been working with the vineyard for at least 10 years, and the wine must pass a tasting panel. The grapes must also be hand-harvested at a significantly lower yield than what is typically required of regional wines.

Also in 2018, the Vino Espumoso de Calidad category was added for traditional method sparkling wine. To be labeled as such, the grapes must be hand-harvested, and the entire winemaking process must take place at the same facility (that is, it cannot be moved at any stage of the process). Brut Nature, Extra Brut, and Brut styles are allowed. Vino Espumoso requires a minimum of 15 months lees aging, whereas Reserva and Gran Anãda require 24 and 36 months, respectively. Gran Anãda wines must be produced with fruit harvested during a single vintage, and this date must be stated on the label.

Artadi's "El Pison" vineyard in Rioja.

Navarra DO is adjacent to the northern and eastern borders of Rioja, and has long been famous for rosado bottlings. Like Rioja, Navarra wines gained prominence in the Middle Ages due to clerical support, and the rosados of the region achieved recognition by the 15th century. Today, however, red wine accounts for approximately 60% of the Navarra’s production, with rosado wines representing only 30% of the region’s output. Garnacha and Tempranillo are the major red varieties. Chardonnay plantings have spiked in the last two decades, making it Navarra's most prominent white variety, but white grapes account for only about 7% of vineyard acreage. Red grapes of French origin, including Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Pinot Noir, are on the rise. Navarra contains five subzones: the higher altitude Valdizarbe, Baja Montaña and Tierra Estella in the north, Ribera Alta in the center of the zone, and Ribera Baja in the hot southern sector. As a testament to the rising quality of Navarra’s red wines, four estates earned their own DO Pago appellations: Señorío de Arínzano and Prado Irache in Tierra Estella, Bodegas Otazu in Valdizarbe, and Bolandín in Ribera Baja.

The autonomía of Aragon, to the east of Rioja and Navarra, contains four DOs: Campo de Borja, Calatayud, Cariñena, and Somontano. The hot climate of Navarra’s Ribera Baja and Rioja’s Oriental (Baja) zone extends southward into the Campo de Borja DO, where Garnacha commands around two-thirds of the vineyard acreage. Red and rosado wines are produced, principally from Garnacha and Tempranillo, and white wines are based on Viura. Garnacha also dominates the vineyards of Calatayud DO and Cariñena DO to the south. Cariñena, one of Spain’s longstanding delimited zones (dating to 1932) is the ancestral home of the Carignan/Mazuelo grape, but today the grape is a secondary player in the region’s blends. Finally, the up-and-coming Somontano DO (“beneath the mountain”) lies in the foothills of the Pyrenees near Catalonia, producing wines from local grapes such as the white Alcañón and red Parraleta, as well as a larger complement of Spanish and international varieties. The region also contains two Pagos, Ayles and Urbezo.

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Green Spain: Galicia and Basque Country

Green Spain includes the autonomía of Galicia, which borders Portugal in the northwestern corner of the country, and the autonomías of Asturias, Cantabria, and País Vasco (Basque Country) along the northern Costa Verde, or green coast. Galicia is a verdant region of lush vegetation and dense forests, riddled with rías (estuaries) and small rivers cutting through low mountain ranges. The cooler maritime climate of the region is ideal for the production of crisp, refreshing white wines, and Galicia is emerging as one of Spain’s best areas for such wines. As the nickname “Green Spain” implies, Galicia is a world removed from the popular conception of an arid Spanish landscape. Within Galicia, there are five DOs: Rías Baixas, Ribeiro, Valdeorras, Ribeira Sacra, and Monterrei.

Rías Baixas DO (the “low estuaries”) borders Portugal on the coast and contains five subzones: Val do Salnés, Ribeira do Ulla, Soutomaior, O Rosal, and Condado do Tea. The white grape Albariño comprises classic wines from the region, and a wine labeled Rías Baixas Albariño will not contain any blending grapes. If the wine is instead labeled with one of the northern subzones (Val do Salnés or Ribeira do Ulla) it must contain a minimum 70% of recommended varieties: Albariño, Loureiro, Treixadura, and Caiño Blanco. The southern subzones of O Rosal and Condado do Tea vary slightly: the wines contain a minimum 70% of Albariño combined with, respectively, either Loureira or Treixadura—the favored white grapes in Portugal’s neighboring Vinho Verde—in any combination. Regardless, many of the best producers make pure varietal Albariño, sometimes subjecting the wine to malolactic fermentation and barrica aging, which is indicated on the bottle. Whether oaked or not, classic Albariño wines tend to show stone fruit and citrus flowers, with an undercurrent of minerality. Red wines are produced from grapes such as Caiño, Espadeiro and Mencía, but nearly 96% of the vineyard acreage in Rías Baixas is devoted to Albariño.

With exports to England dating to the 17th century, Ribeiro DO is one of Spain’s oldest recognized wine regions, and the wines have always been popular with Spaniards. Located along the Miño River to the east of Rías Baixas, the region produces red and white wines based on Galician varieties—Treixadura is the favored white grape, gradually replacing the neutral, heavier Palomino, and Caiño is preferred for reds. A dried grape wine, Vino Tostado, is a local specialty. The “sacred bank” of Ribeira Sacra DO, named for its large concentration of churches, is located further inland and upriver. Ribeira Sacra encompasses five subregions: Amandi, Chantada, Quiroga-Bibei, Ribeiras do Sil and Ribeiras do Miño. Steeply terraced slopes recall the better-known regions of the northern Rhône—the Romans also built these terraces, some 2000 years ago. The remote region’s better red and white wines are based on Mencía, Treixadura, and Godello. Valdeorras DO is Galicia’s easternmost zone. While some pleasant red wines are produced, the region’s best wines are clean, fruit-driven, high-acid Godello whites. Monterrei, the southernmost DO in Galicia, is a small region with only a handful of wineries.

Asturias and Cantabria do not produce any DO wine, but the País Vasco contains three principal DO zones: Getariako Txakolina, Bizkaiko Txakolina, and Arabako Txakolina. Wines from all three DOs may be white, red, or rosado, but the white wines, produced from the native Ondarrabi Zuri grape, are predominant. In Getariako alone, Ondarrabi Zuri (Hondarribi Zuri) accounts for 95% of vineyard acreage, with the remaining acreage planted to Ondarrabi Beltza, the preferred local red variety. The rare rosado wines, traditionally known as Ojo de Gallo, are often blends of the two grapes. The white wines, a perfect complement to oily seafood, are low in alcohol, high in lemony acidity, and retain a light effervescence. Txakoli wines should be consumed in their youth.

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Castilla y León

Castilla y León, or Old Castile, is Spain’s largest autonomía. “The land of castles” includes a number of such fortifications built to repel the Moors in the early Middle Ages, and the dynastic union of Castilla y León and Aragon through marriage in the 15th century led to the birth of the Kingdom of Spain. Castilian Spanish was the only official dialect in Spain for two centuries prior to the ratification of the Spanish constitution in 1978. The region is generally characterized by a continental climate, slightly moderated by its proximity to the Atlantic and Mediterranean but still subject to extreme highs and lows. The terrain of Castilla y León consists of the northern part of the Meseta Central—the arid central plateau of Spain—and the mountains that encircle it. The Duero River flows westward through the center of the region and passes the DOs of Ribera del Duero, Rueda, Toro, Tierra del Vino de Zamora, and finally Arribes on its path toward Portugal. Arlanza DO is located directly north of Ribera del Duero, with Cigales DO to the west of both appellations. León DO and Bierzo DO are located in the mountainous northwestern corner of Castilla y León; Bierzo borders Valdeorras in Galicia.

The Mencía grape is at home in the valleys of the Sil River and its tributaries in the Bierzo DO; it is often the dominant grape in red wines and rosé wines, and many of the region’s newer and more serious reds are solely produced from Mencía. The young Alvaro Palacios, already a marquee name in Priorat, founded Descendientes de José Palacios with his nephew Ricardo Pérez in 1999, and achieved instant recognition for Bierzo with their biodynamic “Corullón” bottlings: extracted, old-vine Mencía-based wines sourced from mountainside schist soils. The project, along with other modern trailblazers such as Dominio de Tares and Pittacum, is commanding top dollar for its wines. Whites are also produced, and while wines made from Godello and Doña Blanca show more promise, Palomino still dominates the vineyards. The León DO, upgraded from Vino de la Tierra in 2007, produces reds, whites, and rosados. Recommended red grapes include Mencía and the local Prieto Picudo.

Ribera del Duero DO, which surrounds the towns of Aranda de Duero and Peñafiel in the Duero River Valley, is considered one of Spain’s top red wine-producing regions. The region’s flagship estate has long been Vega Sicilia, founded in by Don Eloy Lecanda y Chaves, who in 1864 planted a number of Bordeaux varieties and—curiously—a little Pinot Noir alongside Tinto del País (Tempranillo) in order to make brandy. In 1929, following an ownership change and a transition to estate-bottled table wines, new winemaker Domingo Txomin achieved international acclaim at the Barcelona World’s Fair with his 1917 and 1918 vintages of Único, Vega Sicilia’s benchmark wine. Único, blended from Tinto del País, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Merlot and aged, often for a decade or more in American and French oak barrels, has long commanded extravagantly high prices, even as a simple vino de mesa—Ribera del Duero did not achieve DO status until 1982. Despite its mammoth influence, Vega Sicilia remained the only serious producer in the region until the 1980s, when the wines of Pesquera began achieving critical acclaim. Since the mid-1980s, however, quality, investment and interest have skyrocketed in Ribera del Duero, and the region now supports a number of cult wine estates, including Dominio de Pingus and Aalto. When Ribera del Duero received DO status, there were only 9 wineries in the region; today the number of producers is nearer to 300.

Ribera del Duero produces reds as well as small amounts of whites, rosados, and claretes. Whites must contain at least 75% of the early-ripening Albillo Mayor grape. Rosados and claretes are composed of a minimum of 50% authorized red grapes for the area. Tempranillo, variously known as Tinto del País and Tinto Fino, is the region’s premier grape and enjoys a near monopoly on its vineyards; a minimum of 75% is required for its reds. Small amounts of Garnacha and international varieties like Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot are also cultivated.

As in Rioja, the aging requirements for these categories differ slightly from the normal DO standards. Recent labeling changes allow for not only reds but also white wines, rosados, and claretes to be labeled crianza, reserva, and gran reserva. For crianza, reds must age for two years prior to release (including one year in cask). Reds labeled reserva must age for three years prior to release (including one year in cask). Gran reserva reds must age for a minimum two years in cask for a total of five years of aging altogether. Roble may be used for wines that see a minimum of three months oak aging; joven is for wines aged less than three months. Whether joven or gran reserva, however, no rule mandates that an aging classification needs to be stated on the label. (For a full list of aging requirements, refer to the Compendium.)

Rueda received its DO shortly before Ribera del Duero, in 1980. The white Verdejo grape, easily prone to oxidation, was rejuvenated by Marqués de Riscal in the 1970s as a fresh, crisp counterpart to their red Rioja. Through careful handling, controlled temperatures and an anaerobic environment, Verdejo could provide delicate, aromatic wines, rather than the oxidative, sherry-style wines of the past. White wines simply labeled as Rueda now require a minimum 50% of Verdejo or Sauvignon, often blended with Viura. They may blend with Chardonnay and Viognier as well. Red wines are dominated by Tempranillo, and rosado wines contain a minimum 50% of red grapes. Espumoso, or sparkling wines, are produced in both rosado and white styles. Brut and Brut Nature Espumoso wines require a minimum 75% Verdejo or Sauvignon Blanc. The occasional dry fortified, oxidized Dorado wine is still encountered, although these wines are a dying style in a region energized by freshness, and are not often encountered outside Spain.

Rueda Dorado oxidizing in glass.

To the west of Rueda, Toro DO produces red, white and rosado wines, although it is the region’s red wines that have attracted the most international interest. Red wines require either a minimum of 75% Tinta de Toro or 85% Garnacha. However, they are often produced solely from Tinta de Toro, a local strain of Tempranillo, which ripens easily in the extremely hot, dry continental summers of Toro. White wines may be made with Verdejo or Malvasia along with Albillo Real and Muscat à Petit Grains, and rosados may be blends of any of these red or white grapes. Fariña and Numanthia-Termes are among the top names in the appellation, and the launching of Vega Sicilia’s Bodegas Pintia seems to cement Toro’s newfound success. Tierra del Vino de Zamora DO lies to the west of Toro, and produces red, white, rosado, and the lighter clarete (rosé) wines from similar grapes. Reds require a minimum 75% Tempranillo. Vega Sicilia’s Ribera del Duero rival Alejándro Fernández of Pesquera staked his claim in Zamora, with the founding of the Dehesa la Granja estate. Overall, Toro and Zamora can only continue to benefit from their proximity to Ribera del Duero. The river continues its westward path, flowing through Arribes DO at the border. Here, Rufete—reflecting the region’s proximity to Portugal—and several other red grapes join Tempranillo in the appellation's vineyards; white wines are produced from Malvasia, Verdejo, and Albilla.

Cigales DO is located to the north of the old capital city of Valladolid, and to the northwest of Ribera del Duero. The region produces red wines made principally from Garnacha Tinta and Tinto del País (Tempranillo), but is particularly noted for its rosado and nuevo (primeur) rosado production. Arlanza DO, to the east of Cigales and directly north of Ribera del Duero, is one of Spain’s newest DOs, dating to 2007. A small core of wineries produces reds and whites from a complement of Duero Valley and Bordeaux varieties. As of 2022, Castilla y Leon received its first DO Pago, Urueña. Then it was joined by Abadía-Retuerta and Dehesa Peñalba in 2022.

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Catalonia (Catalunya)

The autonomía of Catalonia, or Catalunya in the Catalan language, is a stone’s throw (and a trek over the Pyrenees) from Roussillon in France, a region with which it shares a common culture and lineage. Catalonia and Roussillon split in the 17th century, when the king of Spain ceded Roussillon to France, a political division that has existed to this day. Although the two regions fly a similar flag of red and yellow stripes as a reminder of an intertwined history, a shared interest in heavier, fortified and sweet red wines has ceded ground in Catalonia. Catalan wines reflect its industry, wealth, and modernization: when traditional method sparkling winemaking came to Spain, it debuted in Catalonia; when Miguel Torres introduced stainless steel fermentation to Spain in the 1960s, he introduced it in Catalonia; when René Barbier sought to create a bold new Spanish red wine in 1979, he planted his grapes in Catalonia. The region of Catalonia exemplifies the modern face of Spanish winemaking and technological innovation; however, amidst the new is a backbone of tradition and older styles—wines produced in the same fashion for generations.

Priorat DOCa (DOQ in Catalan) in the southwest of Catalonia is the site of René Barbier’s project and home to some of Spain’s richest, most concentrated red wines. The second region in Spain to be promoted to DOCa, Priorat derives its name from Priorato de Scala Dei, a Carthusian monastery (priory) founded on the site of a boy’s vision of angels ascending to heaven. The region is overwhelmingly devoted to red wine production, although some white and rosado wine is produced. Garnacha and Cariñena are the traditional varieties of Priorat, struggling to achieve even small yields in the rock-strewn schist soils of the region. Llicorella, a mix of black slate and quartzite, characterizes the best vineyards, requiring vines to dig deeply for water. In 1979 Barbier, a winemaker for Alvaro Palacios, planted a mix of local and French vines in the llicorella soils of Gratallops, and convinced Palacios and several others to join him. In 1989, they cooperatively produced a first effort—a single red wine bottled under five different labels—and turned the eyes of the wine world towards Priorat. The five original “Clos” wines of Priorat, commonly acknowledged as Barbier’s Clos Mogador, Palacios' Clos Dofi, Clos Erasmus, Clos de l’Obac, and Clos Martinet, were released as vino de mesa, yet they represented a new pinnacle of quality for the region. After the 1991 vintage, the project split and the wines moved forward in separate production. Today, Clos Mogador, Alvaro Palacios, Clos Erasmus, Costers del Siurana (whose founder Carles Pastrana produced Clos de l’Obac), and Mas Martinet continue to build on their original legacy, alongside others like Vall Llach and Scala Dei. Priorat’s best red wines are usually dominated by Garnacha or blended from Spanish and French varieties, and subject to varying shades of French barrique treatment. Managing alcohol is a key factor in a warm, Mediterranean region where grapes can ripen unchecked to a potential alcohol of 18%. In 2009, Priorat established a village category (Vino de Pueblo, or Vi de Vila in Catalan) for estate-grown wines from 12 villages, including Gratallops.

Schist soil at Scala Dei in Priorat.

Priorat DOQ is almost entirely surrounded by the Montsant DO, a ring-shaped region that was until 2002 a subzone of Tarragona. Like Priorat, Garnacha and Cariñena are dominant, and the region seems poised to offer a value alternative as Priorat’s prices continue to rise. Tarragona DO is much larger, encompassing a swath of the Catalan coast to the west of Penedès DO. Historically, Tarragona wines were generally fortified rancio or mistela, the Spanish version of vin de liqueur. Today, much of the vineyard area has been converted to white varieties for Cava, but these old styles are still made in small quantities. Communion wines for Christian churches now represent the most substantial market for Tarragona’s wines. The Terra Alta DO is to the southwest of Tarragona and the Conca de Barberà DO is adjacent to northern Tarragona. Costers del Segre DO spans several noncontiguous subzones between Tarragona and Somontano: Pallars Jussà, Artesa de Segre, Valls del Riucorb, Segrià, Garrigues, Urgell and Raimat. Raimat, the smallest subzone, houses an estate of the same name that was integral to the formation of the zone. With far-reaching foresight, Manuel Raventós purchased arid, infertile land in the region for his Raïmat estate in 1914; over sixty years later, after a transformation of the parched land through canal construction and agricultural restoration, his estate produced its first commercial vintage.

Northeast of Tarragona, along the Catalan coast, is the Penedès DO. The land rises steadily from the coast toward the inland Meseta, and Penedès is divided between three distinct altitude zones: Baix-Penedès, Medio-Penedès, and Alt-Penedès. The Alt-Penedès, one of Europe’s highest altitude winegrowing regions, is perfectly suited to cultivation of the white Parellada grape, one of the principal grapes in the Cava sparkling blend. Although Cava has its own DO, 95% of Cava is produced in the region of Penedès, and five of Cava’s authorized white grapes—Parellada, Xarel-lo, Macabéo (Macabeu), Malvasía, and Chardonnay—comprise a large majority of the Penedès vineyards. Ull de Llebre (Tempranillo) thrives in the Medio-Penedès. Sturdier Mediterranean red grapes like Garnacha (Garnatxa) and Monastrell are planted in the lower vineyards of the Baix-Penedès, producing high-alcohol red and rosado wines, which have replaced the sweet fortified reds popular in the past—and across the border in Roussillon. Although red grapes dominate in the Baix-Penedès, two producers—Vega de Ribes and the charity Hospital de Sant Joan Baptista—are perpetuating the Malvasía de Sitges variety, a historical specialty of the region nearly consigned to the dustbin of history. As a sweet fortified wine, Malvasía de Sitges recently received the coveted Slow Food “presidia” status, helping to insure its future survival as a unique product of the region.

Sant Sadurní d’Anoia, the birthplace of Cava, lies in the Alt-Penedès. Here, Jose Raventós of Codorníu introduced método tradicional sparkling winemaking to Spain, in 1872. Today, Codorníu is second in size only to the competing house of Freixenet, the world’s largest producer of sparkling wines. Cava DO wines may be produced from the following grapes: Parellada, Xarel-lo, Macabeu, Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Garnacha Tinta, Monastrell, Trepat, and Malvasia (Subirat). The recommended grapes Macabeu, Xarel-lo and Parellada provide the traditional blend for the wine; with new plantings and more appropriate viticultural practices they are providing better wines, deflecting past criticisms aimed at the blowsy, broad, neutral character of the wines. Cava wines require less time on the lees than Champagne at the Cava de Guarda level: nine months. For the Cava de Guarda Superior designations: eighteen months for reserva, and thirty months for gran reserva. Cava DO is the only Spanish Denominación de Origen that covers a style, rather than a region. Technically, Spain mapped and delimited the regions of Cava production in order to comply with EU regulations—the region just happened to coincide with the vineyards of many producers throughout Spain who were already making the wine. Today, the better Cava sparklers made from the traditional grapes are slightly earthy and citrus-tinged, whereas Chardonnay and Pinot Noir are better suited to lengthier lees aging and the flavors of autolysis. Bottles of Cava can always be spotted by the mark of a four-pointed star imprinted on the cork.

The remaining Catalan appellations include Alella DO, to the northeast of Penedès, where Xarel-lo, known locally as Pansà Blanca, contributes to the DO’s own still dry white wines or the blends of Cava. Empordà DO is located in the northeastern corner of Spain, bordering Banyuls in Roussillon. The focus is on Cariñena rosados, although Garnacha and international varieties have also been successful. Pla de Bages—a derivative of Bacchus, the Roman god of wine—is a newer DO to the northwest of Penedès, with similar grapes. The Catalunya DO encompasses the entire autonomía, covering wineries not included in more specific DO zones and allowing more freedom of blending and expression from a range of sites and authorized grapes. The Balearic Islands, a chain off the coast of Catalonia, is an autonomía closely associated with Catalan culture. Two DO zones, Pla i Llevant and Binissalem Mallorca, produce wines from a range of international and indigenous grapes, including Manto Negro and Moll (Prensal Blanc).

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Southern Spain

Wine is produced in every autonomía of Southern Spain, including Murcia and Valencia, which comprise the Levant region on the eastern coast; Castilla-La Mancha, the southern portion of the central Meseta; Madrid, the capital city; Extremadura in southwestern Spain; and Andalucía on the southern coast. Valencia, a region steeped in both Catalan and Moorish tradition, is simultaneously the name of the autonomía, its capital (and Spain’s third largest city) and a DO zone focusing on white wines produced from the local Merseguera grape and other varieties. The wines can be fairly neutral, and the region is better known for its oranges and its paella—Valencia is the birthplace of the famous Spanish rice dish. The other DO zones within the autonomía of Valencia are Alicante and Utiel-Requena. Alicante DO is known for dessert wines: a local specialty is Fondillón, a solera-style, oxidative dessert wine produced from overripe Monastrell (Mourvèdre) grapes aged for a minimum of ten years. Unlike Sherry, the famous solera wine of Andalucía, Fondillón is not fortified and it does carry the flavor of wood. Utiel-Requena DO red wines are primarily produced from the Bobal grape and doble pasta is a traditional style. Doble Pasta red wines are macerated and fermented with twice the normal amount of grape skins and pulp, resulting in a wine of intense concentration, tannin and color. Often, doble pasta wines are used to strengthen weaker blends, but this traditional role is ebbing away with the rising production of grape concentrate in Utiel-Requena. Murcia, the southern autonomía in the Levant, comprises three DO zones: Jumilla, Yecla, and Bullas. The sandy soils of Jumilla resisted phylloxera until the 1980s, nearly one hundred years after the bug entered Spain, and the resulting vineyard decimation allowed the region’s producers to refocus, pivoting away from generic bulk wine production to the cultivation of the drought-resistant, thick-skinned Monastrell. The region’s reds and rosados—white grapes perform less worthily in the desert-like climate of Jumilla—now represent some of Spain’s best values and make up over 95% of the DO’s output. Garnacha, Petit Verdot, and other grapes may be used for blending, but Monastrell alone occupies over 80% of the region’s vineyards.

Monastrell vines in Jumilla.

To the west of the coastal Levant appellations, La Mancha DO lies within the Castilla-La Mancha autonomía and is Europe’s largest single demarcated wine region. Windmills dot the flat plain, recalling Don Quixote, Cervantes’ delusional knight-errant, whose silhouette adorns the logo of the La Mancha DO Consejo Regulador. The principal grapes of the region are Cencibel (Tempranillo) and Airén, which thrive in La Mancha’s hot, dry environment—an inhospitable region for fungus and mold. Despite being found only in southern Spain, Airén until recently claimed more acreage than any other white grape in the world, due to vast tracts of low-density plantings in La Mancha. Today, it is the second most planted grape, after Chardonnay, and remains on the decline, with a significant amount of the vast annual harvest destined for distillation. Cencibel performs well and is highly recommended by the Consejo for replanting in La Mancha, yet some producers, as in every corner of Spain, are experimenting with international varieties. Within the Méntrida DO, the Marqués de Griñon estate planted Cabernet Sauvignon, Petit Verdot, Syrah, and Merlot and adopted the illegal practice of drip irrigation, releasing modern, concentrated wines as vino de mesa. Officials rewarded the estate’s controversial methodology and encépagement in 2003, granting Marques de Griñon an estate appellation: DO Pago Dominio de Valdepusa. The same year, the La Mancha estate of filmmaker Manuel Manzaneque received its own appellation, DO Pago Finca Élez. Other DO Pago estates followed: Guijoso in 2005, Dehesa del Carrizal in 2006, and Campo de la Guardia and Pago Florentino in 2009. Casa del Blanco and Calzadilla received DO Pago status in 2010 and 2011, respectively. Three additions were approved in 2019: DO Pagos Vallegarcía, La Jaraba, and Los Cerrillos. in 2024, Rosalejo became the newest addition to DO Pago status in the area.

The Castilla-La Mancha pagos all implement an international blend, in the pursuit of wines of “expression.” Marqués de Griñon, founded in 1973, has the longest history of any of these pagos. The estate has enlisted both the Pomerol guru Michel Rolland and his mentor, Émile Peynaud, in its quest to quickly position itself at the top of Spain’s quality ladder. This approach—incorporating money and modern methodology in the quick pursuit of concentration, greatness, and expression, rather than the timeworn, terroir-driven methods of the Old World—is common among DO Pago proprietors, perhaps quixotically.

Like Méntrida, Almansa DO was once administered by La Mancha's Consejo Regulador. For Almansa reds, producers rely principally on the Garnacha Tintorera grape, a teinturier characterized by red-pigmented juice. Manchuela DO is to the north of Almansa, bridging the Levant and La Mancha. As in Utiel-Requena, Bobal is the chief grape. Ribera del Júcar DO is located between Manchuela and La Mancha, and was a subzone of the latter until it received its own DO status in 2003. Valdepeñas DO—the “valley of rocks”—is surrounded by La Mancha, yet the region received formal recognition in 1932, over forty years earlier than its much larger neighbor. Here, too, Airén is the most planted grape, followed by Cencibel. Although the climate of the two regions is quite similar, the vines in Valdepeñas benefit from a higher concentration of chalk bedrock, which provides better retention of water in the arid environment. Reserva and gran reserva wines, often produced exclusively from Cencibel, can be of excellent quality—particularly those sourced from the western sector of Los Llanos and the northern sector of Las Aberturas. To the northeast of La Mancha, the newer Uclés DO is off to a promising start, focusing on the red varieties Cencibel, Garnacha, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Syrah. White wines, sparkling wines, and sweet, dulce wines are also produced. The DO requires vines bearing red grapes to be in their sixth year of age before the fruit may be harvested, and mature vines are divided into three age categories; maximum yields decrease with the vine’s age.

North of La Mancha, Mondéjar DO permits wines of all three colors from Cencibel, Cabernet Sauvignon, Macabéo, and the white Malvar grape. To the west of the zone is Vinos de Madrid DO, an appellation for the wines produced in four areas—San Martín de Valdeiglesias, Navalcarnero, Arganda, and el Molar—comprising three noncontiguous zones around the capital city. Airén, Malvar, Tinto Fino, and Negra de Madrid (Garnacha) are widely planted in the appellation; most of the wines are consumed within the city itself. To the southwest of Madrid and Méntrida, in the Extremadura autonomía, is the sole DO of Ribera del Guadiana. The large DO contains six subzones: Ribera Alta de Guadiana, Ribera Baja de Guadiana, Matanegra, Cañamero, Montánchez, and the superior Tierra de Barros. Although some good value wine is produced, much of the region’s large harvest ends up in the copper stills of Jerez, and the region is overall better known for its contributions to gastronomy: jamón serrano and the prohibitively expensive jamón ibérico. Tierra de Barros, which encompasses nearly 80% of the DO, is the home of Bodegas Inviosa, a longstanding and key proponent of the region’s wines—and the only producer of Cava in southwestern Spain.

Spanning Spain’s southern coastline, Andalucía includes the DO zones of Greanda, Málaga, Sierras de Málaga, Montilla-Moriles, Condado de Huelva, Jerez-Xérès-Sherry, and Manzanilla Sanlúcar de Barrameda. This is the Spain of bullfighting, of flamenco, of authentic gazpacho—the stereotypes of Andalucían culture that often serve to characterize all of Spain. The Strait of Gibraltar bridges Africa and Europe: it represents a historically important trading route and may have even been the route by which man first crossed into Europe. Before the Moorish conquest of 711, the Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Romans, Vandals, Visigoths, and even the Byzantines exerted control over the region, to varying degrees of success. It was the Moors, however, who transformed Andalucía, or Al-Andalus, into a hub of Mediterranean trade, learning and culture. The city of Jerez de la Frontera was known as “Sherish” in Arabic—key to a successfully prosecuted case in more recent times contesting British use of the term Sherry. The Moorish culture persisted longest here, until the fall of Granada in 1492 ended Moorish rule on the Iberian Peninsula. Eight months later, Columbus set sail from Andalucía to find his ocean route to the East Indies. This event, sparking the race for colonial power and discovery in the Americas, was to have a profound effect on the future of Spanish wine—particularly the fortified wines of Andalucía and the Canary Islands, which, along with Porto and Madeira, supplied the New World. Ferdinand Magellan, who led the first circumnavigation of the globe in 1519, spent more of his budget on sherry than weapons. The wines of Jerez, known to English-speakers as "sack," also found a market in England, France, and Flanders. A singular plunder of nearly 3000 barrels of “sherris sack” in 1587 by the English Admiral Frances Drake cinched English tastes for the wine—a preemptive strike against Cádiz and the king’s armada, which sailed unsuccessfully against England in the following year.

Sherry became an incredibly popular export to Great Britain in the ensuing three centuries; Samuel Pepys, who famously extolled the virtues of “Ho-Bryan,” also visited Sanlúcar de Barrameda, and Shakespeare regularly cited the wine in his works. High demand led to increased supply, and the Jerez bodegas began to purchase wine stocks from more distant areas of Andalucía, such as Condado de Huelva and Montilla-Moriles, to fill their soleras. British firms—Osbourne, Garvey, John Harvey (now Domecq)—arrived in the 17th and 18th centuries to found bodegas. Sherry was in worldwide demand by the late 1800s, but the arrival of phylloxera in 1894, coupled with a rise in production of “Sherry” styles throughout Europe, curtailed the industry. With the establishment of a Jerez Consejo Regulador and the attainment of DO status in 1933, Sherry rebounded. By 1979, Jerez was exporting 200 million bottles a year. Unfortunately, much of the wine was cheap and of questionable quality, and Jerez suffered considerably as a result. Today, efforts to reduce vineyard acreage and increase quality overall have largely been successful, and the fortified sherry wines are the product of one of the world of wine’s most laborious, artisan processes, often for a very good price. There are two DO zones today, sharing the same vineyards and Consejo Regulador: Jerez-Xérès-Sherry and Manzanilla-Sanlúcar de Barrameda. Three towns—Jerez de la Frontera, Sanlúcar de Barrameda, and El Puerto de Santa Maria—form a “golden triangle” of production; all Sherry wines must be shipped from one of the three. The three authorized grapes are, in descending order of importance, Palomino, Pedro Ximénez and Moscatel. Palomino, or Listán, produces characterless table wines but is the preferred variety for dry Sherry. It thrives in the white albariza soils of the region, which characterize the best pagos, or vineyards. The lower-lying vineyards usually contain more barros (clay), whereas coastal vineyards are characterized by sandy soils called arenas, and are principally suitable for Moscatel grapes.

For more information on the production and styles of Sherry, click here.

Montilla-Moriles DO, to the northeast of Jerez, lent its name to the style of Amontillado, although it is legally barred from using the term Sherry on its labels. Pedro Ximénez (PX) is the zone’s principal grape, and Jerez has received dispensation to import PX must from Montilla-Moriles to compensate for its own declining acreage of the grape. Wines in the style of Sherry—Fino, Oloroso, and Amontillado—are produced in both fortified and unfortified versions. As the PX grape ripens extremely well in Montilla-Moriles’ hot climate, the wines can naturally ferment to 15.5% alcohol—the ideal strength for flor to survive and the post-fortification strength of Fino sherry. Thus, typically only olorosos and dessert styles are fortified. The coastal Málaga DO is directly south of Montilla-Moriles. Once a prosperous wine region, both in its own right and as a supplier to the Jerez soleras, Málaga suffers from lowered international interest in both fortified and sweet wines—the specialties of the zone. Moscatel and PX grapes are the region’s principal grapes. Classically, the grapes are dried for a period of up to 20 days on esparto grass mats (a process known as the soleo) prior to fermentation. Today, the wines of Málaga are either naturally sweet wines—produced either from soleo or simply overripe grapes—or fortified sweet wines. The fortified wines either retain natural sweetness, or the winemaker restores it through the addition of arrope. The fortified wines undergo solera aging in American oak. Five age categories exist for Málaga: Málaga Pálido (no aging requirement), Málaga (at least six months in oak), Málaga Noble (two to three years), Málaga Añejo (three to five years), and Málaga Trasañejo (minimum five years). Table wines from the region are released under the Sierras de Málaga DO.

Off the coast of Africa, the Canary Islands lie nearly 700 miles from the Iberian Peninsula. The archipelago is of volcanic origin and has a sub-tropical climate. Nonetheless, wine is produced on most of the inhabited islands, and there are ten DO zones. Five are located on the island of Tenerife; the other five each cover a whole island: La Palma, El Hierro, Gran Canaria, La Gomera and Lanzarote. Phylloxera never reached the Canaries, and century-old vines are not an uncommon sight. Red wines are usually produced from Listán Negro, Negramoll (Tinta Negra), Malvasía Rosada, and Listán Prieto (Mission), whereas whites may result from a larger combination of grapes, including Malvasía, Gual, Forastera Blanca, Moscatel, and Listán Blanco (Palomino). The fortified wines of the past have ceded ground to the fresh vino joven styles popular with the islands’ tourists.

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Spain

user22387 — Thu, 30 Jan 2025 15:47:15 GMT

Revision 162 posted to Study-Guide by user22387 on 1/30/2025 3:47:15 PM

Table of Contents

Spain
North-Central Spain
Green Spain: Galicia and Basque Country
Castilla y León
Catalonia (Catalunya)
Southern Spain
Review Quizzes

Spain

With the exception of a few major regions (including Rioja and Ribera del Duero) that have adapted more stringent requirements, the following label definitions are consistent throughout Spain.

Additionally, any DOP wines may use the following aging terminology:

Noble: min. 18 months aging in a cask of less than 600 L or bottle
Añejo: min. 24 months aging in a cask of less than 600 L or bottle
Viejo: min. 36 months aging, demonstrates marked oxidative character

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North Central Spain

Artadi's "El Pison" vineyard in Rioja.

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Green Spain: Galicia and Basque Country

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Castilla y León

Rueda Dorado oxidizing in glass.

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Catalonia (Catalunya)

Schist soil at Scala Dei in Priorat.

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Southern Spain

Monastrell vines in Jumilla.

Spanning Spain’s southern coastline, Andalucía includes the DO zones of Málaga, Sierras de Málaga, Montilla-Moriles, Condado de Huelva, Jerez-Xérès-Sherry, and Manzanilla Sanlúcar de Barrameda. This is the Spain of bullfighting, of flamenco, of authentic gazpacho—the stereotypes of Andalucían culture that often serve to characterize all of Spain. The Strait of Gibraltar bridges Africa and Europe: it represents a historically important trading route and may have even been the route by which man first crossed into Europe. Before the Moorish conquest of 711, the Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Romans, Vandals, Visigoths, and even the Byzantines exerted control over the region, to varying degrees of success. It was the Moors, however, who transformed Andalucía, or Al-Andalus, into a hub of Mediterranean trade, learning and culture. The city of Jerez de la Frontera was known as “Sherish” in Arabic—key to a successfully prosecuted case in more recent times contesting British use of the term Sherry. The Moorish culture persisted longest here, until the fall of Granada in 1492 ended Moorish rule on the Iberian Peninsula. Eight months later, Columbus set sail from Andalucía to find his ocean route to the East Indies. This event, sparking the race for colonial power and discovery in the Americas, was to have a profound effect on the future of Spanish wine—particularly the fortified wines of Andalucía and the Canary Islands, which, along with Porto and Madeira, supplied the New World. Ferdinand Magellan, who led the first circumnavigation of the globe in 1519, spent more of his budget on sherry than weapons. The wines of Jerez, known to English-speakers as "sack," also found a market in England, France, and Flanders. A singular plunder of nearly 3000 barrels of “sherris sack” in 1587 by the English Admiral Frances Drake cinched English tastes for the wine—a preemptive strike against Cádiz and the king’s armada, which sailed unsuccessfully against England in the following year.

For more information on the production and styles of Sherry, click here.

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Spain

user22387 — Thu, 30 Jan 2025 15:41:40 GMT

Revision 161 posted to Study-Guide by user22387 on 1/30/2025 3:41:40 PM

Table of Contents

Spain
North-Central Spain
Green Spain: Galicia and Basque Country
Castilla y León
Catalonia (Catalunya)
Southern Spain
Review Quizzes

Spain

With the exception of a few major regions (including Rioja and Ribera del Duero) that have adapted more stringent requirements, the following label definitions are consistent throughout Spain.

Additionally, any DOP wines may use the following aging terminology:

Noble: min. 18 months aging in a cask of less than 600 L or bottle
Añejo: min. 24 months aging in a cask of less than 600 L or bottle
Viejo: min. 36 months aging, demonstrates marked oxidative character

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North Central Spain

Artadi's "El Pison" vineyard in Rioja.

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Green Spain: Galicia and Basque Country

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Castilla y León

Rueda Dorado oxidizing in glass.

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Catalonia (Catalunya)

Schist soil at Scala Dei in Priorat.

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Southern Spain

Monastrell vines in Jumilla.

For more information on the production and styles of Sherry, click here.

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South Africa

user22387 — Wed, 29 Jan 2025 04:44:04 GMT

Revision 90 posted to Study-Guide by user22387 on 1/29/2025 4:44:04 AM

Table of Contents

South Africa
Coastal Region
Breede River Valley Region
Klein Karoo Region
Olifants River Region
Cape South Coast Region
Toward the Future
Review Quizzes

South Africa

The history of the vine in South Africa can be traced to 1652, when Jan van Riebeeck of the Dutch East India Company founded Cape Town and established its first vineyard.

Bush vine Pinotage (Photo credit: Kelli White)

The regions of South Africa (Courtesy of SAWIS)

The districts of South Africa (Courtesy of SAWIS)

Coastal Region

Stellenbosch (Photo credit: Kelli White)

Breede River Valley Region

Klein Karoo Region

Olifants River Region

The Olifants River Region includes two districts—Citrusdal Mountain and Citrusdal Valley—and is located to the north of Swartland. Colombard and Chenin Blanc are chiefly purposed for bulk wines, and South Africa’s largest co-operative winery, Vredendal, is based here. The region is home to two of the country's most famous sites, the ward of Piekenierskloof is well known for Grenache, and the single vineyard of Skurfburg which is famous for old vine Chenin Blanc South Africa’s highest elevation vineyards are located in Cederberg, an unincorporated ward located to the east of the Olifants River Region.

Cape South Coast Region

Hemel-en-Aarde (Photo credit: Kelli White)

Toward the Future

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South Africa

user22387 — Tue, 28 Jan 2025 15:20:11 GMT

Revision 89 posted to Study-Guide by user22387 on 1/28/2025 3:20:11 PM

Table of Contents

South Africa
Coastal Region
Breede River Valley Region
Klein Karoo Region
Olifants River Region
Cape South Coast Region
Toward the Future
Review Quizzes

South Africa

The history of the vine in South Africa can be traced to 1652, when Jan van Riebeeck of the Dutch East India Company founded Cape Town and established its first vineyard.

Bush vine Pinotage (Photo credit: Kelli White)

The regions of South Africa (Courtesy of SAWIS)

The districts of South Africa (Courtesy of SAWIS)

Coastal Region

Stellenbosch (Photo credit: Kelli White)

North of Stellenbosch, the warmer inland Paarl (meaning “pearl”) district is home to the KWV, a founding partner in SAWIT. With over 40 bottlings in its range, Nederburg is the district’s largest producer and the first house to produce a botrytised dessert wine in South Africa. The renowned Nederburg Wine Auction, an auction of rare Cape wines, has taken place in Paarl since 1975. In its first year, the New World’s oldest annual wine auction showcased Golden Liquid Nederburg Edelkeur. The district rivals Stellenbosch in production and is successful with varieties like Cabernet Sauvignon, Shiraz, Pinotage, Chenin Blanc, and Chardonnay. Until 2010, Paarl included Franschhoek Valley, the site claimed by French Huguenot settlers in the late 17th century, among its wards, but the historic valley has now achieved status as a separate district. In 2012, Wellington followed suit. Tulbagh is a smaller district located to the north of Paarl. Its higher altitude creates a significant diurnal temperature shift, and MCC production there is increasing. Until 2019, an additional region, Boberg, was permitted for fortified wines from Franschhoek, Paarl, Wellington, and Tulbagh, but it was repealed in 2019.

Breede River Valley Region

Klein Karoo Region

Olifants River Region

Cape South Coast Region

Hemel-en-Aarde (Photo credit: Kelli White)

Overberg is divided into four wards: Klein River, Theewater, Elandskloof, and Greyton. Elgin, previously a fifth ward of Overberg, received district status in early 2012. Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Noir, and even Riesling (renamed Weisser Riesling to distinguish the grape from Cape Riesling) are showing good results in the cooler maritime climate of both districts. The Walker Bay district, a whale-watcher's delight, surrounds the coastal town of Hermanus and is showing success with Pinot Noir and Chardonnay as well as consistently high-quality examples of Pinotage. Hamilton Russell Winery, a pioneer in the district, was an early proponent of the Burgundy grapes as well as Pinotage. Walker Bay contains seven wards; its top areas of production are Bot River and Hemel-en-Aarde (or “Heaven and Earth”) Valley. The windy Cape Agulhas sits on the southernmost point of the continent, with vineyards concentrated in the single ward of Elim. This district’s cool climate is provoking excitement for the region’s Sauvignon Blanc, Semillon, and Shiraz.

Toward the Future

Despite the rich history of Constantia, South Africa is still in its infancy as a winemaking region. Styles and regions continue to evolve at a rapid pace as producers carve out a distinct South African identity in a global wine market. Chenin Blanc, a grape that has struggled to find a successful New World interpretation, has achieved success in the country and offers a uniquely marketable varietal expression. South Africa's unique Pinotage is also showing more potential in the right hands in recent years. With proper understanding, careful viticulture, and thoughtful winemaking, this grape can offer a singular expression for the country. Indeed, South Africa is a developing frontier for wine and a country to watch over the coming decade.

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Alsace, Jura, and Savoie

user22387 — Fri, 24 Jan 2025 16:53:58 GMT

Current Revision posted to Study-Guide by user22387 on 1/24/2025 4:53:58 PM

Table of Contents

Alsace
Jura
Savoie
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Alsace

Alsace and Lorraine share a turbulent history as a buffer between France and Germany, and the Alsatian culture reflects elements of both societies.

Throughout the Middle Ages, Alsace was a province of the Germanic Holy Roman Empire. France developed into a centralized national state in the 15^th and 16^th centuries, a position which brought it into direct conflict with the Spanish Habsburg house, a branch of Europe’s most powerful dynasty. The French-Habsburg rivalry catapulted the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648) in Europe from a localized German religious dispute into a general European war for political dominance. In 1639, French armies seized most of the region of Alsace to prevent it from falling into the hands of the Spanish Habsburgs. The Treaty of Westphalia concluded the war in 1648 and cemented France’s ownership of Alsace until Germany claimed the territory with Lorraine at the conclusion of the Franco-Prussian War in 1871. Alsace-Lorraine enjoyed an extremely brief period of total independence as the abdication of Germany’s Kaiser Wilhelm brought the end of World War I, but French troops quickly moved on Alsace-Lorraine and its capital, Strasbourg, and reincorporated the region into the country within a month. Despite a short occupation by Nazi Germany in the early 1940s, Alsace remains French. Though both are former French régions, as of 2016, Alsace and Lorraine along with Champagne now comprise the Grand Est région.

Winegrowing in Alsace dates to the first millennium. There were 160 Alsatian villages growing grapevines by the year 1000, a trend that peaked in the 16^th century. The brutal Thirty Years’ War demolished winegrowing in the region, and the political instability of the following 300 years repressed the resurgence of the vine. French control following World War I renewed viticulture in Alsace, yet many of the region’s current vineyards date to 1945 and after. The year 1945 also marks the beginning of a divergence in French and German winemaking styles; German wines remained classically sweet, whereas Alsace producers fermented to dryness for a more powerful and food-friendly wine. In 1962, Alsace finally achieved AOC status—the last major French winemaking region to do so.

Alsace is divided into two départements, Haut-Rhin and Bas-Rhin. This division provides a useful convention for quality of wine: generally, the premier wines originate in the Haut-Rhin, and over two-thirds of Alsace’s grand cru vineyards are located in the département. Geographically, Alsace is separated from the rest of France by the Vosges Mountains in the west. The mountains provide a rain shadow effect, and as a result, Alsace is one of France’s driest and sunniest climates. Colmar, capital of the Haut-Rhin département, is the driest city in France. The vineyards of Alsace exist in a thin strand along the lower slopes and foothills of the Vosges, and the exact aspect and location of each vineyard is of importance in this semi-continental climate. The better vineyards enjoy southern, southeastern, or warm eastern exposures to maximize sunlight. However, despite their northerly location, Alsatian vines typically ripen with greater regularity than those in the Loire or northern Burgundy, due to the sheer number of sunlight hours in the summertime.

The rain shadow effect in Alsace (Illustration by Brandon Lee Wise)

Alsatian vineyards have myriad soil types. The land is a geologic mosaic, with granite, limestone, schist, clay, gravel, chalk, loess, and a local pink sandstone called grés de Vosges. Although the soil structure varies greatly from village to village, the steeper mountain slopes are generally composed of schist, granite, and volcanic sediment. The lower slopes sit on a limestone base, and the plain at the foot of the mountains consists of richer alluvial clay and gravel soils. Reflection on soil type is critical in determining the appropriate grape variety for a given site.

Alsatian soils, clockwise from top left: volcanic, clay, decomposed granite, and fossilized shells (Photo credit: Chris Tanghe)

In Alsace, white grapes are paramount, and 90% of AOP wine is white, representing about 20% of France’s total AOP still white wine production. Despite the presence of Pinot Noir, the four “noble” grapes of Alsace—Riesling, Pinot Gris, Muscat (Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains, Muscat Rosé à Petits Grains, or Muscat Ottonel), and Gewurztraminer—occupy the premier sites and are, with minor exceptions, the only grapes planted in the region’s grand cru vineyards. The region’s main appellation, Alsace AOP (or Vin d’Alsace AOP), allows the aforementioned noble grapes, Pinot Blanc (Klevner), Chasselas (Gutedel), Sylvaner, and Pinot Noir to be bottled varietally. Alsace wines generally state the grape on the label. With the exception of Pinot Blanc, which is often blended with the similar but not synonymous Auxerrois, all varietally labeled Alsace AOP wines must contain 100% of the printed grape. Even if bottled as a single variety, Auxerrois may be accorded the title of “Pinot Blanc” on the label. White wines simply labeled "Pinot," on the other hand, may contain any proportion of related varieties—Pinot Noir, Pinot Blanc, Pinot Gris, and Auxerrois.

When considered collectively, Pinot Blanc and Auxerrois represent the largest volume of appellation production. Riesling, however, is the most planted grape and Alsace’s last noble grape to ripen. Alsatian Rieslings are characteristically dry, more powerful, and higher in alcohol than their German cousins. They are amongst the longest-lived dry whites in the world, due to a pronounced acidity and minerality. With sweetness creeping steadily upward in recent years, Alsatian AOP law mandates, from 2008 forward, that standard Riesling wines be dry in style. Pinot Gris, formerly called Tokay d’Alsace or Tokay Pinot Gris, is perhaps Alsace’s quintessential wine: the grape here achieves its fullest, richest expression, with spicy-smoky qualities and noticeable—though hardly high—acidity. Muscat and Gewurztraminer are both highly aromatic. Muscat shows fragrant floral and grapey notes, while Gewurztraminer tends toward perfumed, sweet spices and tropical fruit. Both are lower in acidity, but Gewurztraminer is higher in alcohol and more likely to be off-dry. New oak is usually not a factor in the vinification of these varieties, although many producers use large neutral casks for fermentation and aging.

The noble grapes of Alsace (Illustration by Brandon Lee Wise)

The noble grapes may dominate Alsace today, but this is a recent development. Gewurztraminer is a pink-berried clone of the traditional grape Traminer and steadily replaced it in Alsace’s vineyards throughout the latter half of the 19^th century. Another pink variant of Traminer (known as Savagnin in the Jura) retains a few plantings around the commune of Heiligenstein in the Bas-Rhin; the grape is known locally as Klevener. This Savagnin Rose, or Klevener de Heiligenstein, is less intensely aromatic than Gewurztraminer but higher in acidity. Five communes may bottle this wine varietally under the existing Alsace AOP: Heiligenstein itself, Bourgheim, Gertwiller, Goxwiller, and Obernai.

If no grape variety is listed on the label, an Alsatian wine may be a blend. The term Edelzwicker, meaning “noble mixture,” usually indicates its own inverse: an inexpensive blended wine. Alsace AOP wines labeled Edelzwicker do not need to be vintage-dated, nor are they even legally obligated to contain more than one grape. In practice, however, they are blends and do not need to indicate any percentages or grapes on the label. The unofficial term gentil is a superior designation for blends that contain a minimum of 50% noble grapes. Any other Alsace AOP grape may compose the remainder, and the base wines must be vinified separately. Finally, some producers advocate field blends as the best approach for serious wines. In this case, the grapes are typically vinified together and produced under a vineyard name. Marcel Deiss is one of the staunchest advocates of using this approach as a means of emphasizing Alsatian terroir.

The Alsace Grand Cru AOP was first decreed in 1975 with a single named vineyard, Schlossberg, specified for the appellation. Another 24 grand cru vineyards appeared in 1983, followed by an additional 25 in 1992. A 51st grand cru, Kaefferkopf, was added in 2007. Grand Cru AOP wines are produced only from the noble Alsatian grapes (with two exceptions, noted below) and are typically single-variety wines, although this is no longer required by law. The grands crus Altenberg de Bergheim and Kaefferkopf may blend according to certain prescribed proportions. In addition, Zotzenberg is a historical site for Sylvaner, and as such, the grape is permitted in Grand Cru AOP varietal wines from the vineyard. With the 2022 vintage, Alsace welcomed the addition of Grand Cru Pinot Noir from Hengst and Kirchberg de Barr. In, 2024 Vorbourg became the third Pinot Noir producing Grand Cru. Hand-harvesting is mandatory for all grand cru wines. Minimum sugar levels at harvest are higher than those for Alsace AOP, and yields are more restricted. The minimum potential alcohol is 11% for Riesling and Muscat and 12.5% for Pinot Gris and Gewurztraminer, although certain vineyards mandate higher amounts. In 2011, the number of actual Alsace Grand Cru AOPs was increased from 1 to 51, as each vineyard received its own appellation and cahier des charges, pivoting from the Chablis model to that of the Côte d'Or. This shift may ease further restrictions or expansions of the grape varieties, yields, and techniques allowed for each grand cru.

The grands crus range in size from 3 (Kanzlerberg) to 80 (Schlossberg) hectares, resulting in a rather wide spectrum of quality—a range not dissimilar to that in Burgundy’s Clos de Vougeot. The rapid development of the Alsatian grand cru system, coupled with the lack of an intermediary premier cru level, has engendered controversy. Some producers choose not to utilize grand cru labeling as the politics of vineyard selection may have, they feel, outweighed the specificity of site. Trimbach has traditionally released its Riesling Clos-Ste-Hune as Alsace AOP without any mention of the large Rosacker Grand Cru on the label. (However, the venerable house released its first vintage of Geisberg Grand Cru with the 2009.) The house of Hugel likewise chooses not to promote admissible wines as Alsace Grand Cru AOP.

Vineyards in Alsace (Credit: Pavel Bernshtam/Shutterstock.com)

In 1984, just after the number of grands crus increased to 25, a new decree created two new designations for late-harvest wines: Vendanges Tardives and Sélections de Grains Nobles. These two terms imply sweetness and may be printed on either Alsace AOP or Alsace Grand Cru AOP labels, provided the wines contain a single, noble variety and pass a blind tasting panel. Grapes destined for Sélection de Grains Nobles are generally picked in tries and suppress varietal character in return for the complexities of botrytis. Vendanges Tardives, on the other hand, may show botrytis character but emphasize varietal purity. Quality VT wines usually originate from vines in a state of passerillage. VT and SGN wines are not obligated by statute to be sweet; in practice, SGN wines are always dessert-like, but VT wines may vary in actual sugar and can be quite dry. Grapes for both wines must be hand-harvested at specific, unenriched minimum sugar levels: Vendanges Tardives requires a minimum of 244 grams per liter for Muscat and Riesling, and 270 grams per liter for Pinot Gris and Gewurztraminer. Sélection de Grains Nobles requires 276 grams per liter for Muscat and Riesling, and 306 grams per liter for Pinot Gris and Gewurztraminer. At 306 grams per liter, these wines are among the highest minimum must weights in France.

Pinot Noir is the only red variety permitted for Alsace AOP wines. Light red and rosé wines are the result, although the wines can achieve depth in warmer vintages. Pinot Noir may contribute to the Crémant d’Alsace AOP blend, although Pinot Blanc is the workhorse for these sparkling wines. Rosé versions of Crémant d'Alsace are solely made from Pinot Noir, gaining color either from maceration or from the saignée method. Crémant d’Alsace is the only appellation in the region to allow Chardonnay, and Riesling, Pinot Gris and Auxerrois are also authorized. Sparkling wine production has developed into a profitable and expansive pursuit for Alsatian houses, commanding nearly a quarter of the appellation’s output.

The neighboring région Lorraine has declined as a winegrowing area. In the Côtes de Toul AOP, light red wines are produced from Pinot Noir, and white wines contain Auxerrois and Aubin. Rosé wines, made in a pale vin gris style, include a high proportion of Gamay and Pinot Noir. The small Moselle AOP, upgraded from VDQS in 2011, produces red, white, and rosé wines, principally from Auxerrois and Pinot Noir. Varietally labelled Müller-Thurgau and Pinot Gris are also allowed. As the Moselle River flows north from France, it forms the border between Luxembourg and Germany. As its waters pass Trier, the river carves through the sheer slopes of one of Germany's greatest regions for the Riesling grape: the Mosel Valley.

Jura

The appellations of Jura (Courtesy of Comité Interprofessionnel des Vins du Jura)

Just south of Alsace, the Jura département shares a small portion of its eastern border with Switzerland.

To the west lie the Saône-et-Loire and Côte d’Or départements of Burgundy. The forested Jura Mountains dominate the province and provide a geographical measure of detachment that allows certain traditional wine styles and grapes to persist in the region. The Jurassic Era was named for these mountains, as it was here that the geologic limestone formations of the age were first studied. The region’s vineyards, found on the mountains’ lower slopes, rest upon Jurassic limestone and marl, with a substantial amount of clay at the lowest sites. The Jura’s climate is continental, turning harshly cold in the wintertime.

The standard appellation in the Jura is Côtes du Jura AOP, covering wines of all three colors. The three main red grapes of the Jura are allowed for red wines: Poulsard (Ploussard), Trousseau, and Pinot Noir. The dry whites are typically from Chardonnay (Gamay Blanc) and Savagnin—known locally as Naturé and elsewhere as Traminer, the relative of Gewurztraminer—may be added as a blending partner. (Chardonnay and/or Savagnin must equal at least 80% of the blend.) Rosés can include all five grapes, and are usually made in the vin gris style.

Local specialties vin jaune and vin de paille are also produced within the appellation. Pinot Noir is excluded from vin de paille production, and vin jaune is made from mostly Savagnin. Beyond Côtes du Jura, there are three communal appellations in the region: Arbois AOP, L’Etoile AOP, and Château Chalon AOP. Arbois, the Jura’s leading wine village and home of Louis Pasteur, covers 12 communes producing all styles of Jura wine. A single commune, Pupillin, may append its name to Arbois. L’Etoile, a white wine-only appellation, takes its name from a local fossil, shaped like a five-pointed star. The wines may contain Chardonnay, Poulsard, and Savagnin and are generally bottled late in an oxidative style. Unfortunately, the Jura requires intimate familiarity as producer styles vary—particularly with regard to freshness and oxidation in the whites—and no label language currently exists to rectify the confusion.

Vin Jaune production (Illustration by Brandon Lee Wise)

Château Chalon AOP is a commune—not a producer—specializing in the vin jaune, or "yellow wine," of the Jura. Produced exclusively from Savagnin grapes grown on the local limestone and marl, the wine is deliberately oxidized and may age for decades. After fermentation, Savagnin—also called Naturé—is kept in barrel until December 15 of the sixth year following the harvest. The wine is not topped off during this period, and a voile, or "veil," develops. The voile is a film-forming yeast that covers the wine’s surface, similar to the flor of Jerez. The resulting wine is aldehydic, with nutty, almost curried flavor carried on a delicate, dry palate. Unlike Sherry, vin jaune is not fortified. Château Chalon wines must be bottled in a clavelin, a squat, 62-centiliter bottle, and represent the classic vin jaune style. In poor vintages like 1980 or 1984, the Château Chalon wines may be declassified to the less-specific Côtes du Jura AOP.

Grapes drying for Vin de Paille

The golden vin de paille, or "straw wines," may be labeled as Arbois, L'Etoile, or Côtes du Jura. To produce this rare nectar, ripe but not botrytised grapes are left to dry for a minimum of six weeks after harvest. Traditionally, the grapes are dried on straw mats, although they are often hung to dry or boxed in modern winemaking. As the grapes shrivel and raisinate, they achieve a must weight surpassing 320 grams per liter. Every element of the structure is concentrated; thus, the final wine maintains acidity, giving balance to the high levels of residual sugar and pronounced alcohol content of at least 14%. After fermentation, the wines are aged for a minimum three years before release, including an obligatory 18 months in neutral wood barrels.

Méthode traditionelle sparkling wines are released under the Crémant du Jura AOP, a designation established in 1995. Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, and/or Trousseau must comprise a minimum of 70% of the cuvée. Rosés must contain a minimum of 50% gray or black varieties.

Vin de liqueur is produced as Macvin du Jura AOP, for which aged marc is added to unfermented grape must, resulting in a sweet, unfermented but alcoholic grape juice. Macvin du Jura may be red, white, or rosé, and must be aged for 10 months in oak after mutage.

Savoie

Illustration by Brandon Lee Wise

South of the Jura département is the alpine region of Savoie, a haven for tourists and skiers.

Savoie’s continental climate is moderated by Lake Bourget and the larger Lake Geneva, known as Lac Léman in France, Western Europe’s largest freshwater body. Vineyards are dispersed throughout this mountainous region, with the disconnected, flatter stretches of land near the upper Rhône River and the lakeshores heavily planted. Vin de Savoie AOP (one of six AOPs) is the region’s overarching appellation. White grapes occupy a majority of vineyards. Jacquère is the most common grape, but Altesse, Roussanne (Bergeron), and Chardonnay produce higher-quality wines. Gamay, Mondeuse, and Pinot Noir comprise most of the red and rosé Vin de Savoie wines. A host other grapes are also allowed for all three colors, with the exact encépagement varying by département. A number of villages have the right to add their names to the basic Vin de Savoie AOP, and a more localized, communal encépagement will sometimes supersede the generic appellation. The cru Chignin-Bergeron produces 100% Roussanne wines exclusively, while the crus of Marignan, Ripaille, Marin, and Crépy—all located along the southern shores of Lake Geneva—mandate a minimum 80% Chasselas.

The other regional appellation in Savoie is Roussette de Savoie AOP. Roussette is a synonym for the Altesse grape, and the appellation’s wines are 100% varietal. Four communes may attach their name to the appellation: Frangy, Marestel, Monterminod, and Monthoux.

Seyssel AOP is to the north of Lake Bourget and provides dry and off-dry still and mousseux wines. Still Seyssel wines are typically 100% Altesse, although varietally labelled Molette is also permitted. The sparkling wines are a minimum 75% Molette and minimum 10% Altesse, along with Chasselas. Other sparkling wines in Savoie are produced as Vin de Savoie mousseux or pétillant, and sparkling méthode ancestrale rosés may be found labeled as Bugey Cerdon. Bugey, upgraded to AOP in May 2009, is to the west of Lake Bourget and produces still wines of all three colors in addition to the sparkling rosé Bugey-Cerdon. The wines of Roussette du Bugey AOP, like Roussette de Savoie, are 100% Altesse. The communes of Montagnieu and Virieu le Grand may add their names to this appellation.

A final sparkling wine category, Crémant de Savoie AOP, was established in 2015. Many are based on Jacquere, but they commonly see Altesse, Chardonnay, and some red varieties.

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Alsace: Beginner, Intermediate, Expert
Jura and Savoie: Beginner, Intermediate, Expert

Updated April 2024

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Alsace, Jura, and Savoie

user22387 — Wed, 22 Jan 2025 21:57:53 GMT

Revision 241 posted to Study-Guide by user22387 on 1/22/2025 9:57:53 PM

Table of Contents

Alsace
Jura
Savoie
Review Quizzes

Alsace

Alsace and Lorraine share a turbulent history as a buffer between France and Germany, and the Alsatian culture reflects elements of both societies.

The rain shadow effect in Alsace (Illustration by Brandon Lee Wise)

Alsatian soils, clockwise from top left: volcanic, clay, decomposed granite, and fossilized shells (Photo credit: Chris Tanghe)

The noble grapes of Alsace (Illustration by Brandon Lee Wise)

Vineyards in Alsace (Credit: Pavel Bernshtam/Shutterstock.com)

Jura

The appellations of Jura (Courtesy of Comité Interprofessionnel des Vins du Jura)

Just south of Alsace, the Jura département shares a small portion of its eastern border with Switzerland.

Vin Jaune production (Illustration by Brandon Lee Wise)

Grapes drying for Vin de Paille

Savoie

Illustration by Brandon Lee Wise

South of the Jura département is the alpine region of Savoie, a haven for tourists and skiers.

Savoie’s continental climate is moderated by Lake Bourget and the larger Lake Geneva, known as Lac Léman in France, Western Europe’s largest freshwater body. Vineyards are dispersed throughout this mountainous region, with the disconnected, flatter stretches of land near the upper Rhône River and the lakeshores heavily planted. Vin de Savoie AOP (one of six AOPs) is the region’s overarching appellation. White grapes occupy a majority of vineyards. Jacquère is the most common grape, but Altesse, Roussanne (Bergeron), and Chardonnay produce higher-quality wines. Gamay, Mondeuse, and Pinot Noir comprise most of the red and rosé Vin de Savoie wines. A host other grapes are also allowed for all three colors, with the exact encépagement varying by département. A number of villages have the right to add their names to the basic Vin de Savoie AOP, and a more localized, communal encépagement will sometimes supersede the generic appellation. The cru Chignin-Bergeron produces 100% Roussanne wines exclusively, while the crus of Marignan, Ripaille, and Crépy—all located along the southern shores of Lake Geneva—mandate a minimum 80% Chasselas.

A final sparkling wine category, Crémant de Savoie AOP, was established in 2015. Many are based on Jacquere, but they commonly see Altesse, Chardonnay, and some red varieties.

Review Quizzes

Alsace: Beginner, Intermediate, Expert
Jura and Savoie: Beginner, Intermediate, Expert

Updated April 2024

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Greece

user22151 — Wed, 15 Jan 2025 20:31:58 GMT

Current Revision posted to Study-Guide by user22151 on 1/15/2025 8:31:58 PM

Greece
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Greece

The earliest wines were produced in regions where the vine grew wild. From the grapevine's origins in the Near East, cultivation spread to the Old Kingdom of Egypt, and, around 2500 BCE, the vine was brought, via trade, to the Minoan Bronze Age civilization of Crete.

Crete’s moderate climate proved suitable for the vine, and in viticulture the Minoans surpassed all their contemporaries. The practice was passed to their successors, the Mycenaeans; to other islands in the Aegean; and to the mainland of Greece. The Greeks spread cultivation of the vine throughout much of Europe. The first vineyards in France were in Massalia, a Greek colony at modern-day Marseilles, and southern Italy’s modern varieties Greco and Aglianico may be Greek in origin. The Greeks took viticulture northward as well, to the banks of the Danube and the coastline of the Black Sea. Ultimately, the Greeks were responsible for not only spreading the vine geographically but also democratizing the consumption of wine. In ancient Egypt, wine was regarded as the sweat of the sun god Ra; the Greeks drank wine at religious and ceremonial events, but they also drank socially. As wine consumption in Greece spread to new social classes, additional vineyards were needed. The Romans carried the Greeks’ vines even farther, but the tradition of many modern-day European wine regions extends back to ancient Greece.

While preeminent in the ancient world, Greek wines languished until a late 20^th-century surge in interest and quality. Greece’s vinous reputation had long been rooted in retsina, an aromatized wine flavored with Aleppo pine resin, and, for many, the wine is still the only reference point for the country’s vinous products. Wine was transported through ancient Greece in amphorae, often sealed with pine resin to prevent spoilage, and over time the resulting flavor became an acquired taste. Some believe, however, that the resin was always added specifically for its flavor, as ancient Greek wine was often mixed with a variety of substances, including honey, seawater, and herbs. Today, retsina is generally produced as a white wine, from Savatiano grapes, and flavored with the addition of pine resin, rather than stored in resin-sealed casks. Per Greek law, it cannot be labeled with a vintage. Retsina is a traditional appellation protected by the EU (as a PGI) and is rarely encountered outside Greece, though the wine continues to shape perceptions of the Greek wine industry overall. For many years, Greece was thought of as a country producing lesser quality, oxidized wines, but a new generation of winemakers is striving to redefine Greek wine. Although larger producers, such as Boutari and Tsantali, continue to dominate the Greek wine industry, it is the newer, smaller producers who are generating excitement. With over 300 indigenous varieties in the country, the future for high-quality but uniquely Greek wines is bright.

Greece first implemented wine laws in 1969 and 1970, with most of the country’s appellations established in 1971. Refined in the 1980s and overseen by the Greek Wine Institute, these appellation laws conform to EU standards and resemble the French model. There are two levels of PDO (Protected Designation of Origin) quality wine: Controlled Appellation of Origin, or Οίνοι Ονομασίας Προελεύσεως Eλεγχόμενης (AOC/OPE), a status reserved for traditional sweet wines; and Appellation of Superior Quality, or Οίνοι Ονομασίας Προελεύσεως Ανωτέρας Ποιότητος (AOSQ/OPAP). While these two separate categories might be found on labels, they are generally considered outdated, as most producers prefer the EU's PDO and PGI designations. PDO Wines of Greece will appear on current and future bottles of wines featuring a designation of origin, especially those destined for export. PDO wines may carry an aging designation. Réserve indicates a minimum one year of aging for white wines, with at least six months in barrel and three months in bottle, and a minimum two years of aging for red wines, with at least one year in barrel and six months in bottle. Grande Réserve requires a minimum two-year aging period for white wines, including at least one year in barrel and six months in bottle, and a minimum four-year aging period for red wines, including at least 18 months in barrel and 18 months in bottle.

Below the PDO category are PGI (Protected Geographical Indication) wines, Varietal wines, and Table wines. The Varietal category comprises table wines that carry a vintage and variety on the label, whereas ordinary Table wines cannot; neither Varietal nor Table wines may list a geographical indication. The PGI category includes the Traditional Appellations (Ονομασία κατά Παράδοση) of Retsina and Verdea (an oxidative white wine produced on the island of Zakynthos, in the Ionian Sea), and integrates the wines of Greece’s former vin de pays category, Topikos Inos (Τοπικοί Οίνοι). The PGI zones are divided into regional, district, and area levels: PGI regions are equivalent to the major regions of Greece, such as Peloponnese and Crete, whereas PGI areas are so small they may only include a single estate. PGI districts correspond to the peripheral units of Greece, a form of political state that replaced prefectures during administrative reform in 2010. Cava indicates at least one year of aging for white and rosé PGI wines, and a minimum three years of aging for reds. White and rosé Cava wines spend at least six months in oak prior to bottling, and reds rest in barrel for at least one year. Palaiomenos se vareli may be added to the label of Cava, Réserve, or Grande Réserve wines to indicate oak aging beyond the required minimums.

The Greek mainland includes the regions of Macedonia, Epirus, Peloponnese, Thessalia, Thrace, and Central Greece (Sterea Ellada). The Greek islands are broadly categorized into the Aegean and Ionian Islands. Although Thrace, in northeastern Greece, cannot claim any PDO appellations, neighboring Macedonia is home to some of Greece’s best dry red wines. In Macedonia’s PDO regions of Naoussa and Amynteo, red wines are produced solely from the firmly tannic red grape Xinomavro (“acid black”). In Goumenissa PDO, lighter Xinomavro wines are produced, requiring the addition of at least 20% Negoska. Naoussa PDO, established in 1971, is one of Greece’s most successful appellations and is the home of Boutari, one of Greece’s two largest producers and a major force in the modern rejuvenation of Greek winemaking. Amynteo is Greece’s coolest region and one of the few PDOs allowing production of rosé wines; these may range from dry to semisweet, and be still or sparkling. A fourth PDO, Slopes of Meliton (Plagies Melitona), is a single appellation for Domaine Porto Carras, a trailblazing, ambitious Greek estate. Red PDO wines from the estate are blends of Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, and the native Limnio; white PDO wines are blends of the Greek varieties Assyrtiko, Athiri, and Roditis. Evangelos Gerovassiliou, the winemaker who launched Domaine Carras to international acclaim under the guidance of Émile Peynaud, nurtured the native white Malagousia grape from the brink of extinction and now produces varietal wines of high aromatic intensity from the grape at his own domaine in the PGI district of Thessaloniki, in central Macedonia.

Central Greece, or Sterea Ellada, is a bastion of retsina; Attiki, the region surrounding Athens, is the center of production. The low-acid Savvatiano, preferred for retsina because it retains some varietal character when resinated, is the chief grape in the region, and the second most planted variety is Roditis, the common name for a closely linked family of pink-skinned grapes. There are no PDO zones.

Peloponnese, a peninsula only by virtue of the narrow Isthmus of Corinth, is directly south of Sterea Ellada. Vine cultivation is concentrated in the north, around the three PDO zones of Nemea, Mantinia, and Patras. Both dry and sweet Nemean wines are produced exclusively from Agiorgitiko (Saint George), a softly tannic, intensely fruity black grape and one of Greece’s most noble native varieties. Agiorgitiko performs differently throughout the wide range of elevations and terrains in Nemea, reflected in the appellation’s division into several recognizable subzones; the commune of Koutsi is one of the most famous. The wines of Nemea are sometimes called the blood of Hercules (or blood of the lion), a reference to the first of Hercules’s 12 legendary labors. In the other PDO zones of the Peloponnese, only white wines are allowed. Moschofilero, a red-skinned grape that is aromatically similar to Muscat, is the principal component of Mantinia PDO wines, one of Greece’s most exciting white wines. Patras is an appellation for dry to semisweet white wines produced from 100% Roditis, but there are also three dessert wine PDO zones connected to the region: Muscat of Patras, Muscat of Rio Patras, and Mavrodaphne of Patras. Muscat of Patras and Muscat of Rio Patras may be either vin doux naturel or naturally sweet in style, and are produced from Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains. Mavrodaphne (“black laurel”) of Patras is a sweet, fortified red wine produced from Mavrodaphne and Mavri Korinthiaki, a currant grape useful for enriching the sugar content of the wine. Mavrodaphne of Patras is aged for at least one year in wood prior to release, but the wine may sometimes rest in cask for a decade or more prior to bottling. Both vintage and nonvintage versions are produced. The estate of Achaia Clauss, progenitor of the style, has a Mavrodaphne solera dating to 1882. The Greeks often drink Mavrodaphne of Patras as an aperitif—a tradition developed to temper the briny, salty character of Greek first courses—and the wine is used for the communion sacrament in Greek Orthodox services. In 2010, the Greeks awarded PDO status to the wines of Monemvassia-Malvasia, a small zone on the southeastern coast of the Peloponnese. Although Monemvassia is the name of the grape used here and elsewhere in Greece, it is also the name of an old port town governed variously by the Greeks, Byzantines, Venetians, and Turks. Evidence of the brisk trade of Monemvassia’s sweet wines dates back to the 13th century. During their rule, Venetians rechristened the port and its wines Malvasia. In deference to the historic importance of the area’s malvasios oenos, the new appellation’s wines must be sweet in style. As the wines must be aged in an oxidative environment for at least two years, the first releases, produced from a minimum 51% Monemvassia, went on the market in 2012.

A greater number of PDO appellations exist for the Aegean Islands, to the south and east of the mainland. Crete, the largest and southernmost Greek isle, accounts for approximately 10% of Greek wine production, yet the island struggles with quality. Crete is home to the red wine PDO zones Archanes and Daphnes, and the PDO zones Sitia and Peza, which permit both red and white wines. In 2012, three new PDO zones debuted on the island: Candia, Malvasia Candia, and Malvasia Sitia. The Vilana grape, used for the majority of dry white Sitia wines and the entirety of Peza whites, is Crete’s most cultivated white grape. Despite Vilana's status in the PDO wines of the island, many of Crete's most talented winemakers prefer to showcase Vidiano, a white grape that retains more acidity. Liatiko, the dominant grape in the red Sitia and Daphnes PDO wines, is found only on Crete and a handful of neighboring islands. It is one of the most ancient varieties under cultivation, it ripens in mid-July, and it delivers a distinctively orange-hued wine. Mandilaria, the most common red variety throughout the Aegean, is blended with Kotsifali to produce the Archanes and red Peza wines. On Crete, however, many winemakers are more excited to blend Kotsifali with Syrah—a recipe that may successfully mirror international tastes yet sacrifices some of the character of Crete in the process.

North of Crete are the Cycladic islands of Santorini and Paros. Santorini PDO is an appellation producing white wines from the Assyrtiko grape, sometimes blended with Athiri and Aidani. The vines must be trained close to the ground, in the stefani shape of baskets or wreaths, in order to protect them from the fierce Aegean winds and to collect the little moisture that becomes available as morning dew. Assyrtiko, grown in the island’s poor, volcanic soils, is one of Greece’s most compelling white grapes: the wines are distinctively mineral, powerful, and high in acidity. Paris Sigalas is a master of the variety, producing Assyrtiko in both barrel-aged and fresher versions. Also produced on the island is a sweet, dried grape wine, Vinsanto—a name likely appropriated by the Italians when Venetians ruled the island in the Middle Ages. In Paros PDO, red and white wines are produced from the Mandilaria and white Monemvassia varieties. Paros is the only Greek appellation that mandates use of a white grape (Monemvassia) in red blends.

The isle of Samos, to the northeast of Paros, is home to one of the nation’s most famous wines: the famed Muscat of Samos, now a PDO, received a form of appellation protection as early as 1934, when the island’s growers were united under the Union of Vinicultural Cooperatives of Samos (EOSS). Unlike many Greek wine regions, Samos was not considered a propitious place for viticulture in the ancient world; only after constant harassment from pirates led to a near-total depopulation of the island (around 1475) did newcomers to the island begin to plant Muscat. The island rises sharply from the sea, and vineyards are planted on high altitude, terraced slopes. On Samos, Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains is known as Moscato Aspro, and is produced in vin de liqueur, vin doux naturel and naturally sweet versions. The naturally sweet version is called Samos Nectar, and is similar to vin de paille—the wine is produced from dried grapes and aged for a minimum of three years prior to release.

The islands of Lemnos and Rhodes, to the north and east of the Cyclades respectively, each have two PDO appellations. Lemnos wines are white, dominated by Muscat, and may be dry or sweet. The ancient red Lemnio grape utilized in the wines of Domaine Carras originated on Lemnos, but its importance on the island has greatly diminished. Rhodes, an island much closer to southern Asia Minor than Greece itself, produces PDO red, white, and rosé varietal wines from Mandilaria and Athiri. Muscat of Rhodes PDO wines are rarely encountered.

Greece today is focused on building a reputation with indigenous grapes as well as international varieties. Winemaker education is vastly improving, and phylloxera, which did not strike the Peloponnese until the 1960s and Crete until the 1970s, has enabled producers to rethink and reshape their vineyards. As the Greeks experiment and become more confident with the inherent strengths of native grapes, the quality and uniqueness of Greek wines continues to expand. (Various spellings of the regions and grapes are often encountered because of the inexact nature of translating from the Greek alphabet; there are no definitive translations.)

Selected Resources

Johnson, Hugh, and Jancis Robinson, eds. The World Atlas of Wine. 8^th ed. London: Mitchell Beazley, 2019.

Robinson, Jancis, ed. The Oxford Companion to Wine, 4^th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.

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Greece

user22151 — Wed, 15 Jan 2025 20:10:32 GMT

Revision 4 posted to Study-Guide by user22151 on 1/15/2025 8:10:32 PM

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In its infancy, wine was produced in regions where the vine grew wild. From its origins in the Near East, cultivation of the grapevine spread to the Old Kingdom of Egypt, and, around 2500 BCE, the vine was brought, via trade, to the Minoan Bronze Age civilization of Crete.

Despite Crete’s latitude, the island’s moderate climate proved suitable for the vine, and in viticulture the Minoans surpassed all their contemporaries. (They also developed indoor plumbing—clearly a civilization ahead of the times.) The practice was passed to their successors, the Mycenaeans, to other islands in the Aegean, and to the mainland of Greece. The Greeks spread cultivation of the vine throughout much of Europe. The first vineyards in France were in Massalia, a Greek colony at modern-day Marseilles, and Southern Italy’s modern varieties Greco and Aglianico may be Greek in origin. The Greeks took viticulture northward as well, to the banks of the Danube and the coastline of the Black Sea. Ultimately, the Greeks were responsible for not only spreading the vine geographically but also democratizing the consumption of wine. In ancient Egypt, wine was regarded as the sweat of the sun god Ra; the Greeks drank wine at religious and ceremonial events, but they also drank socially. As wine consumption in Greece spread to new social classes, additional vineyards were needed. The Romans carried the Greeks’ vines even farther, but the tradition of many modern-day European wine regions extends back to ancient Greece.

While preeminent in the ancient world, Greek wines languished until a late 20th-century surge in interest and quality. Greece’s vinous reputation had long been rooted in retsina, an aromatized wine flavored with Aleppo pine resin, and, for many, the wine is still the only reference point for the country’s vinous products. Wine was transported through ancient Greece in amphorae, often sealed with pine resin to prevent spoilage, and over time the resulting flavor became an acquired taste. Some believe, however, that the resin was always added specifically for its flavor, as ancient Greek wine was often mixed with a variety of substances, including honey, seawater, and herbs. Today, retsina is generally produced as a white wine, from Savatiano grapes, and flavored with the addition of pine resin, rather than stored in resin-sealed casks. Per Greek law, it cannot be labeled with a vintage. Retsina is a traditional appellation protected by the EU (as a PGI) and is rarely encountered outside Greece, though the wine continues to shape perceptions of the Greek wine industry overall. For many years, Greece was thought of as a country producing lesser quality, oxidized wines, but a new generation of winemakers is striving to redefine Greek wine. Although larger producers, such as Boutari and Tsantali, continue to dominate the Greek wine industry, it is the newer, smaller producers who are generating excitement. With over 300 indigenous varieties in the country, the future for high-quality but uniquely Greek wines is bright.

Selected Resources

Johnson, Hugh, and Jancis Robinson, eds. The World Atlas of Wine. 8^th ed. London: Mitchell Beazley, 2019.

Robinson, Jancis, ed. The Oxford Companion to Wine, 4^th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.

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Greece

user22151 — Wed, 15 Jan 2025 20:08:55 GMT

Revision 3 posted to Study-Guide by user22151 on 1/15/2025 8:08:55 PM

Greece
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Greece

Moschofilero in Mantinia

Agiorgitiko growing in the hills of Nemea

Selected Resources

Johnson, Hugh, and Jancis Robinson, eds. The World Atlas of Wine. 8^th ed. London: Mitchell Beazley, 2019.

Robinson, Jancis, ed. The Oxford Companion to Wine, 4^th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.

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Greece

user22387 — Mon, 13 Jan 2025 14:38:36 GMT

Revision 2 posted to Study-Guide by user22387 on 1/13/2025 2:38:36 PM

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Greece

Greece first implemented wine laws in 1969 and 1970, with most of the country’s appellations established in 1971. Refined in the 1980s and overseen by the Greek Wine Institute, these appellation laws conform to EU standards and resemble the French model. There are two levels of PDO (Protected Designation of Origin) quality wine: Controlled Appellation of Origin, or Οίνοι Ονομασίας Προελεύσεως Eλεγχόμενης (AOC/OPE), a status reserved for traditional sweet wines; and Appellation of Superior Quality, or Οίνοι Ονομασίας Προελεύσεως Ανωτέρας Ποιότητος (AOSQ/OPAP). While these two separate categories might be found on labels, they are seen as archaic as most producers prefer the EU's PDO and PGi designations.. PDO Wines of Greece will appear on current and future bottles of wines featuring a designation of origin, especially those destined for export. PDO wines may carry an aging designation. Réserve indicates a minimum one year of aging for white wines, with at least six months in barrel and three months in bottle, and a minimum two years of aging for red wines, with at least one year in barrel and six months in bottle. Grande Réserve requires a minimum two-year aging period for white wines, including at least one year in barrel and six months in bottle, and a minimum four-year aging period for red wines, including at least 18 months in barrel and 18 months in bottle.

Moschofilero in Mantinia

Agiorgitiko growing in the hills of Nemea

Selected Resources

Johnson, Hugh, and Jancis Robinson, eds. The World Atlas of Wine. 8^th ed. London: Mitchell Beazley, 2019.

Robinson, Jancis, ed. The Oxford Companion to Wine, 4^th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.

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Greece and Eastern Europe

user22387 — Mon, 13 Jan 2025 14:33:14 GMT

Current Revision posted to Study-Guide by user22387 on 1/13/2025 2:33:14 PM

Greece
Hungary
Bulgaria
Romania
Slovenia and Croatia
Czech Republic and Slovakia
The Russian Federation
Former Soviet Republics
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Greece

While preeminent in the ancient world, Greek wines languished until a late 20th-century surge in interest and quality. Greece’s vinous reputation had long been rooted in retsina, an aromatized wine flavored with Aleppo pine resin. Wine was transported through ancient Greece in amphorae, often sealed with pine resin to prevent spoilage, and over time the resulting flavor became an acquired taste. Some believe, however, that the resin was always added specifically for its flavor, as ancient Greek wine was often mixed with a variety of substances, including honey, seawater, and herbs. Today, retsina is generally produced as a white wine, from Savatiano grapes, and flavored with the addition of pine resin, rather than stored in resin-sealed casks. Per Greek law, it cannot be labeled with a vintage. Retsina is a traditional appellation protected by the EU (as a PGI) and is rarely encountered outside Greece, though the wine continues to shape perceptions of the Greek wine industry overall. For many years, Greece was thought of as a country producing lesser quality, oxidized wines, but a new generation of winemakers is striving to redefine Greek wine. Although larger producers, such as Boutari and Tsantali, continue to dominate the Greek wine industry, it is the newer, smaller producers who are generating excitement. With over 300 indigenous varieties in the country, the future for high-quality but uniquely Greek wines is bright.

Greece first implemented wine laws in 1969 and 1970, with most of the country’s appellations established in 1971. Refined in the 1980s and overseen by the Greek Wine Institute, these appellation laws conform to EU standards and resemble the French model. There are two levels of PDO (Protected Designation of Origin) quality wine: Controlled Appellation of Origin, or Οίνοι Ονομασίας Προελεύσεως Eλεγχόμενης (AOC/OPE), a status reserved for traditional sweet wines; and Appellation of Superior Quality, or Οίνοι Ονομασίας Προελεύσεως Ανωτέρας Ποιότητος (AOSQ/OPAP). While these two separate categories might be found on labels, they are seen as archaic as most producers prefer the EU's PDO and PGi designations. PDO Wines of Greece will appear on current and future bottles of wines featuring a designation of origin, especially those destined for export. PDO wines may carry an aging designation. Réserve indicates a minimum one year of aging for white wines, with at least six months in barrel and three months in bottle, and a minimum two years of aging for red wines, with at least one year in barrel and six months in bottle. Grande Réserve requires a minimum two-year aging period for white wines, including at least one year in barrel and six months in bottle, and a minimum four-year aging period for red wines, including at least 18 months in barrel and 18 months in bottle.

The Greek mainland includes the regions of Macedonia, Epirus, Peloponnese, Thessalia, Thrace, and Central Greece (Sterea Ellada). The Greek islands are broadly categorized into the Aegean and Ionian Islands. Although Thrace, in northeastern Greece, cannot claim any PDO appellations, neighboring Macedonia is home to some of Greece’s best dry red wines. In Macedonia’s PDO regions of Naoussa and Amynteo, red wines are produced solely from the firmly tannic red grape Xinomavro (“acid black”). In Goumenissa PDO, lighter Xinomavro wines are produced, requiring the addition of at least 20% Negoska. Naoussa PDO, established in 1971, is one of Greece’s most successful appellations and is the home of Boutari, one of Greece’s two largest producers and a major force in the modern rejuvenation of Greek winemaking. Amynteo is Greece’s coolest region and one of the few PDOs allowing the production of rosé wines; these may range from dry to semisweet, and be still or sparkling. A fourth PDO, Slopes of Meliton (Plagies Melitona), is a single appellation for Domaine Porto Carras, a trailblazing, ambitious Greek estate. Red PDO wines from the estate are blends of Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, and the native Limnio; white PDO wines are blends of the Greek varieties Assyrtiko, Athiri, and Roditis. Evangelos Gerovassiliou, the winemaker who launched Domaine Carras to international acclaim under the guidance of Émile Peynaud, nurtured the native white Malagousia grape from the brink of extinction and now produces varietal wines of high aromatic intensity from the grape at his own domaine in the PGI district of Thessaloniki, in central Macedonia.

Moschofilero in Mantinia

Agiorgitiko growing in the hills of Nemea

There are four wine-producing Ionian Islands off the west coast of Greece: Cephalonia, Kerkyra (Corfu), Lefkada, and Zakynthos. Cephalonia is the only Ionian island that has any PDOs. Robola of Cephalonia PDO is for dry white wines produced from Robola, a variety unrelated to the Ribolla or Rebula found in Friuli or Slovenia. PDO sweet wines are also produced on the island, from Mavrodaphne and Muscat. Zakynthos, an island of breathtaking beauty, visible from the Peloponnesian coast, is the home of Verdea traditional appellation wines. Verdea, produced from obscure and autochthonous grapes such as Skiadopoulo, Pavlos, and Avgoustiatis, may share similarities with Jura's vin jaune and sherry, but even to Greeks it is often unknown. A greater number of PDO appellations exist for the Aegean Islands, to the south and east of the mainland. Crete, the largest and southernmost Greek isle, accounts for approximately 10% of Greek wine production. Crete is home to the red wine PDO zones Archanes and Daphnes, and the PDO zones Sitia and Peza, which permit both red and white wines. In 2012, three new PDO zones debuted on the island: Candia, Malvasia Candia, and Malvasia Sitia. The Vilana grape, used for the majority of dry white Sitia wines and the entirety of Peza whites, is Crete’s most cultivated white grape. Despite Vilana's status in the PDO wines of the island, many of Crete's most talented winemakers prefer to showcase Vidiano, a white grape that retains more acidity. Liatiko, the dominant grape in the red Sitia and Daphnes PDO wines, is found only on Crete and a handful of neighboring islands. It is one of the most ancient varieties under cultivation, it ripens in mid-July, and it delivers a distinctively orange-hued wine. Mandilaria, the most common red variety throughout the Aegean, is blended with Kotsifali to produce the Archanes and red Peza wines. On Crete, however, many winemakers are more excited to blend Kotsifali with Syrah—a recipe that may successfully mirror international tastes yet sacrifices some of the character of Crete in the process.

Hungary

In the northeastern corner of Hungary, at the confluence of the Tisza and Bodrog Rivers, producers in the Tokaj region (formerly Tokaj-Hegyalja, or the Tokaj “foothills”) have long been crafting some of Europe’s most exemplary and longest-lived dessert wines.

Vineyards in Tokaj

The region was one of the first in modern Europe to undergo a vineyard classification; in 1700, the Transylvanian Prince Rákóczy delimited 28 villages in the region, inaugurating a golden age for the wine that would last through the next two centuries. Some sources alternatively date Tokaj’s classification to 1730, with a final legal recognition in 1772—definitive evidence of the 1700 classification remains elusive. Aszú grapes are a fundamental component of the best Tokaji wines; although the term originally signified desiccated grapes, it has evolved to indicate grapes of high sugar levels afflicted with botrytis cinerea—the noble rot. Aszú appears in works published as early as 1571, and Szepsi Laczkó Máté definitively produced botrytis-affected aszú wine by the mid-17th century. Thus, the aszú wines of Tokaj predated the botrytised wines of Germany, and probably Sauternes as well. Legend attributes the mid-16th century declaration—“These wines are fit for a pope”—to either Pope Julius III or Pope Pius IV, and King Louis XIV of France praised Tokaji as (another) “wine of kings and king of wines” during his 17th century reign. Catherine the Great of Russia enjoyed Tokaji so emphatically that she left a permanent detachment of her Cossack guard in Tokaj to guard royal shipments, whereas the 19th century Queen Victoria of England received an annual birthday gift of a dozen bottles, courtesy of the Austro-Hungarian Emperor. Unfortunately, the Iron Curtain closed the door on quality for Tokaji in the 20th century, but the region rebounded quickly after the fall of communism with an immense amount of foreign interest and investors eager to see their beloved Tokaji restored to its former glory. Estates such as the Royal Tokaji Company, Vega Sicilia’s Tokaj Oremus, Disznókõ, and Királyudvar are leading the way.

Tokaj is both the name of the overall region and the commune at the convergence of the two rivers; Tokaji is an adjectival form used to indicate the wine. The Tokaj region, sheltered by the Carpathian Mountains, enjoys a warm continental climate with long, humid autumns: perfect encouragement for botrytis. Soils are predominantly volcanic loess and clay, and many of the better vineyards occupy south-facing slopes. Rákóczy’s original classification, which divided the vineyards of Tokaj and its neighboring villages into 1st, 2nd, and 3rd growths, remains relevant today through the efforts of the Tokaj Renaissance, a producers’ association devoted to the protection of the concept. 74 vineyards are recognized as first growths; Szarvas and Mézes Mály, near the communes of Tokaj and Tarcal, respectively, share the superlative designation of Great First Growths. The two principal grapes of the region are Furmint and Hárslevelű; Sárgamuskotály (Muscat Blanc à Petite Grains), Zéta (Oremus), Kabar and Kövérszőlő are authorized but generally used in small quantities. Furmint is key to the production of Tokaji Aszú, as it is particularly susceptible to botrytis and high in acidity. Traditionally, the aszú grapes are handpicked individually and gathered in containers called puttony—puttonyos is an adjective rather than the plural form—which hold roughly 25 kg. As in Sauternes, yields are miniscule. A tiny fraction of syrupy, free-run juice is allowed to settle out of the aszú must—this will be vinified separately as Esszencia. The aszú is then trampled into a paste, or dough, and a number of puttony containing aszú paste is mixed with gönci barrels of must or base wine from non-aszú grapes. The number of puttony added to a gönc (a Hungarian oak cask of approximately 136 L) determines the final sweetness of the Tokaji Aszú wine, and Tokaj Aszú was labeled with 3-6 puttonyos to indicate sweetness—until major revisions eliminated these categories in time for the 2013 harvest. Modern Tokaj Aszú is simply labeled "Aszú"; it ages for just over two years prior to release (with a minimum 18 months in barrel) and must contain at least 120 g/l of residual sugar and achieve an actual alcohol content of at least 9%. Meanwhile, the sugar-rich Esszencia—the preferred Tokaji of the czars—ferments at a glacial pace, sometimes taking decades to reach 4-6% alcohol. Richer than honey, the wine retains at least 450 grams per liter of residual sugar. Esszencia, or Natúresszencia, is rarely available commercially, and it is everlasting nectar, unique in the entire world of wine.

Several styles of Tokaji beyond Tokaji Aszú exist. Tokaji Szamorodni (“as it comes”) is produced from a mixture of aszú and non-aszú grapes and is often oxidative in style as it is matured in cask for a minimum of six months, sometimes under a film-forming yeast similar to flor. Szamorodni wines may be édes (sweet) or száras (dry). Fordítás and Máslás wines are the product of refermenting wine with the pressed paste or spent lees, respectively, of Tokaji Aszú. Tokaji wines may also be produced as late harvest wines (in a wide range of styles) without the extended aging of Tokaji Aszú, or as dry varietal wines, made from non-aszú grapes. The talented Hungarian winemaker István Szepsy, a key figure in the establishment of Hugh Johnson’s Royal Tokaji Company and Királyudvar, is a founding member of the Circle of Mád, a small contingent of producers committed to elevating the stature of dry wines in the region.

Tokaj, like Jerez and Champagne, has successfully faced a challenge over the provenance of its name and as of 2007 all other countries in the European Union are prohibited from using the term “Tokaj” or its derivatives (Tokay, Tocai) on labels, regardless of any actual similarity to the wine. Alsatian producers lost the right to produce Pinot Gris as Tokay d’Alsace and Italian producers rechristened Tocai Friulano as simply Friulano.

While Tokaj is certainly Hungary’s most famous product of the vine, wine is produced throughout the country. In 2000, two decades after the fall of Communism, 22 total wine appellations were identified in Hungary. With the EU's recent reforms, this number of regions qualifying for PDO status has increased to 31, with 6 additional PGI areas. These are divided among three major geographical zones of production: the Northern Massif, the western region of Transdanubia, and the southern Great Plain.

The Northern Massif includes Tokaj and Eger, a region famous for Egri Bikavér—the “Bull’s Blood of Eger.” Historically dominated by Kadarka—an indigenous, low-tannin, light-bodied and not particularly sanguine grape—modern Egri Bikavér is a blend of at least four varieties, incorporating Kékfrankos (Blaufränkisch), and other Hungarian and international grapes. Only Eger and Szekszárd in Transdanubia are permitted to use the term “Bikavér” on labels. (In Szekszárd, Bikavér also requires four varieties.) To the west of Eger is Mátra, Hungary’s second largest winegrowing region. Though the area is most known for white wines, red grapes like Kékfrankos and Kadarka are gaining in reputation. Further west, in Transdanubia, other regions beyond Szekszárd include Badacsony and Balatonfüred-Csopak on the shores of Lake Balaton, one of Europe’s largest lakes. Somló lies to the northwest, on the slopes of the extinct volcano. White wines dominate production in these three areas; grapes include Furmint, Juhfark, Olaszrizling (Welschriesling), and a number of international varieties. Red wines are more common in both the extreme south and north of Transdanubia. On the northern border, Sopron is contiguous with Austria’s Burgenland, and Kékfrankos is cultivated in both regions.

To the east of Transdanubia, the Great Plain contains nearly half of Hungary’s acreage under vine. The region’s sandy soils provided a welcome habitat after phylloxera struck in the 19th century. Most of the wines of this region are of everyday quality and consumed locally. Kunság, Hungary’s largest region, is located in the Great Plain and produces a sizable amount of mass production white wine (and some reds) from indigenous grapes. Finally, just south along the Croatian border is Villány, Hungary’s hottest region, which produces good-quality wines from Bordeaux varieties, Kékfrankos, and Kékoportó (Blauer Portugieser).

Bulgaria

Bulgaria’s wine history dates back about 3,000 years. Although the Ottoman Empire impeded the industry’s growth, existing vineyards continued to be maintained from the 15^th to 19^th centuries. Wine culture resumed upon the fall of the Ottomans, and cooperatives were swiftly established. After World War II, the Soviets saw the economic potential in wine, and they took to developing land for grape production on collective, state-run farms. They formed Vinprom in 1948 to manage vineyard expansion and promotion. Vineyards were established on flatter, more fertile grounds in an effort to produce higher yields and allow for mechanized farming. By the late 1950s, Russia was importing much of Bulgaria’s wine production, and Bulgaria grew to become the fourth largest global wine exporter shortly thereafter.

The 1970s ushered in more investment and outside consultation. PepsiCo, for example, was eager to reach Communist countries with its product. In Bulgaria, because of the low value of the local currency, the company was paid for its cola concentrate with Bulgarian wine. However, finding quality lacking, PepsiCo hired consultants, including Professor Maynard Amerine of UC Davis, to help improve the product. This influenced Bulgaria's growing industry and encouraged the planting of grapes such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay. However, Gorbachev’s anti-alcohol reforms, launched in 1985, stymied the huge industry, raising and fixing grape prices so cooperatives had little choice but to turn to more profitable crops.

Privatization following the collapse of the Communist regime in 1990 moved at a slow pace. Foreign investment from quality-minded wine and spirits companies was more difficult to achieve than in neighboring Hungary. France’s Belvedere Group lent the country some prestige when it stepped into Bulgaria in 2002 but sold many of its Bulgarian assets in 2009 during the global economic crisis. The dawn of the 21^st century brought positive changes to the Bulgarian wine industry, leading up to its entry into the EU in 2007. Agricultural funding became available to small wineries to establish wineries as well as improve existing vineyard and winery operations; subsidies attracted foreign interest and investment in the wine industry as well. By 2018, there were over 250 producers.

Bulgarian wine law dates back to the Wine Act of 1978, with the establishment of a Controliran system outlining the best regions and styles. Rules were developed to dictate particular grapes, vineyard techniques, winemaking practices, and tastings to verify typicity and overall quality. By 2000, however, quality categories tended toward the French model and EU regulations. Finally, by 2007, Bulgaria fully adopted EU law, and the Controliran system has since become obsolete.

There are two defined levels of quality for Bulgarian wine: table wine and quality wine. Within the quality category, Bulgaria has only two PGIs, the Danubian Plain and the Thracian Lowlands. Bulgaria has 52 PDOs, but as few as 5 or 6 are in use. In Bulgaria, a winery’s reputation carries more value than a PDO on the label, and thus PDOs are rarely listed. Less than 1% of the 2016 harvest was declared PDO wine, with 70% considered table wine.

As a whole, Bulgaria contains five large regions of wine production: the northern Danubian Plain, the eastern Black Sea coast, the southern Thracian Plain and Sub-Balkan zone referred to as the Valley of the Roses, and the southwestern Struma River Valley. The last of these enjoys a Mediterranean climate, whereas most of Bulgaria is continental. All quality wines may be labeled “barik” if the fermentation occurred in oak casks of 500L or less in volume. The terms “Reserve” and “Special Selection” indicate that a single variety has seen one or two years, respectively, of aging before release.

Red grapes account for about 60% of Bulgaria’s area under vine; Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot are responsible for over half of all reds planted. The thin-skinned Pamid, a very historic grape, accounts for 10% of all plantings and is one of the first red varieties to be harvested. It produces a fresh style suitable for youthful consumption. The native Gamza (Kadarka) and deep-colored Mavrud compose about 3% of plantings. Rubin, a crossing of Nebbiolo and Syrah, shows great potential. Native white grapes include Red Misket (Misket Cherven), an aromatic specialty of Sungurlare—and of no relation to Muscat. Red Misket, Rkatsiteli, and Dimiat are the most planted white varieties in Bulgaria.

Romania

Like its neighbors in Eastern Europe, Romania fell behind the Iron Curtain after World War II, and viticulture—an ancient tradition in this part of the world—changed abruptly under the Communists. The new government emphasized quantity and equality, which in winemaking terms translated to poorer quality. Vineyard acreage greatly expanded with substandard grapes and frost- and disease-resistant hybrids. Winemaking was in the hands of huge cooperatives, which by the end of the 1980s constituted over 60% of production. Since the fall of Communism in 1989, Romania has shifted to privatize its industry and refocus on quality. The lead-up to EU accession in 2007 marked a significant transition. Better plant material, optimal clones, VSP training, closer spacing, and better overall hygiene awareness in the winery vastly improved wine quality. Though quantity was prioritized under Soviet control and plantings greatly expanded during this time, vineyard area has decreased in recent years, stabilizing around 180,000 hectares in 2017. In part, this was a response to Gorbachev’s reforms, but the shift toward quality contributed as well. Five wineries are responsible for nearly 70% of production, with about 97% of growers owning less than a half hectare of land.

Despite a domestic preference for white wines (about 60% of its production), Romania is increasing plantings of red grapes and turning toward more international varieties like Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Pinot Noir to satisfy export markets. As of 2017, Merlot leads red grapes in overall plantings. However, Romania still harnesses an incredible number of indigenous grapes, which can be an advantage in mature niche markets that have taken an increasing interest in experiencing native grapes throughout the world. The most cultivated grapes in the country are the indigenous white grapes Fetească Albă and Fetească Regală. Riesling Italico (Welschriesling), Chardonnay, Sauvignon, Muscat Ottonel, and Pinot Gris also enjoy significant acreage. The indigenous red grapes Fetească Neagră, Burgund Mare, and Băbească Neagră can achieve higher quality, while Rosioara (Bulgaria’s Pamid) is generally reserved for table wine production.

Romanian wine law follows EU legislation and has two broad categories: Wines for Current Consumption (table wines) and Quality Wines. Table wines are subdivided into VM (table wine/Vin de Masa) and VMS (superior table wine/Vin de Masa Superior). Quality Wines are classified as either Vin cu Indicaţie Geografică (a PGI designation) or Denumire de Origine Controlată (or DOC, a PDO designation). For Vin cu Indicaţie wines, a minimum of 85% of the grapes must be produced and vinified in the area specified on the label. Romania’s 12 PGIs are responsible for about 9% of production. There are 35 DOC wines, and they may be produced from recommended and authorized Vitis vinifera varieties (excluding hybrids). DOC wines have been growing in recent years, comprising nearly 30% of overall production in 2017, and seven of the eight major wine zones contain DOCs. These wines may be further subcategorized as follows:

DOC-CMD: grapes harvested at full maturity
DOC-CT: late-harvested grapes
DOC-CIB: botrytis-affected grapes

Additional regulated quality aging terms include: Rezervă and Vin de Vinotecă. Rezervă indicates a minimum of six months in oak and six months in bottle. Vin de Vinotecă ensures a wine has been matured for at least one year in oak and four years in the bottle before release.

Although Romania lies on the same latitude as France, its climate is continental and moderated by the Black Sea. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of the country, and the Danube River marks the southern border with Serbia, flowing eastward into the Black Sea. Many of Romania’s wine regions form a ring along the outer slopes of the Carpathians, including the Moldavan Hills in the east, Muntenia-Oltenia toward the south, and Banat and Crişana-Maramureş in the northwest. Dobrogea and the Danube Terraces are on the eastern Black Sea Coast; the Transylvanian Plateau, in the center of the country, contains Romania’s highest vineyards, buffered by the Carpathian peaks. A final region, Sands, is a minor area for quality wine production.

In Transylvania, the Jidvei DOC nested in Târnave DOC is one of Romania’s coolest and most important wine regions, producing white wines of high acidity from several varieties, including the Fetească grapes and Traminer Rosé. The sweet white wines of Cotnari DOC in Moldavia are the country’s most famous vinous product, having once enjoyed a reputation on par with Tokaji and Constantia. Grasă de Cotnari—which possibly shares a common lineage with Furmint—is capable of reaching extreme ripeness levels and is the region’s most prominent grape. Frâncusa, Tămâioasă Românească—a grape with a unique, resiny aroma comparable to frankincense—and Fetească Albă may be blended with Grasă or vinified and bottled separately as varietal wines. Cotnari may be dry, but the sweet Grasă-based interpretations are the most complex and long-lived. The elevated (200–350 meters) south-facing slopes of the Dealu Mare DOC (meaning “big hill”) within Muntenia-Oltenia are gaining a reputation for red wines, particularly from Cabernet Sauvignon and Pinot Noir. Once known for its late-harvest Chardonnay, Murfatlar DOC in Dobrogea is developing a reputation for its soft styles of Cabernet Sauvignon and Pinot Noir. Its dry climate has also encouraged more organic farming in recent years.

Slovenia and Croatia

From Austro-Hungarian rule to Yugoslavian control that lasted for much of the 20^th century, Slovenia finally became independent in 1991. It was the first nation to emerge from the wreckage of Tito’s Yugoslavia and establish a successful wine industry built on well-defined and enforced quality laws. Slovenia joined the EU in 2004 and is a rapidly improving producer of wine. With nearly 30,000 registered growers and just over 21,000 hectares of vines, grapegrowing is very fragmented, though this is beginning to shift. Cooperatives are still responsible for the majority of production. Grapes are known by their Slovenian names: Refosk (Refosco), Rebula (Ribolla), Sivi Pinot (Pinot Grigio). International varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot are also common, and some indigenous varieties such as the white Pinela and Zelen (a relative of Verduzzo Gialla) persist. Overall, the focus is on white wine, at over 70% of production.

In line with EU wine law, wines of quality include PDO and PGI wines. PDO wines are referred to as Zaščitena Označa Porekla (ZOP) and constitute much of Slovenia’s production. PGIs, which are not as common, are labeled here as Zaščitena Geografska Označba (ZGO). Table wine is simply namizmo vino.

There are three regions in the country: Primorska (Primorje) in the west bordering Friuli in Italy, Podravje in the extreme northeast, and Posavje, at Slovenia’s southeastern border with Croatia. Primorska, the country’s best region for both red and white wine, is subdivided into four districts: Goriška Brda, Kras, Slovenska Istra, and the Vipava Valley. The proximity to Friuli is clear: Goriška Brda (Brda translates to “hills”) becomes Collio Goriziano across the Italian border, and Kras becomes Carso. Primorska (especially Slovenska Istra) has a more mild, Mediterranean-influenced climate that is similar to that of Friuli, as compared to the rest of Slovenia, which is generally continental. The vineyards and geography are blind to political division: Ales Kristancic of Movia, Slovenia’s star producer, has to cross the border to harvest nearly half of his vineyards. His contemporary and aesthetic kin, Josko Gravner, has to cross the Slovenian border to access some of his vineyards as well.

Podravje is the country’s largest region, with nearly 9,000 hectares under vine. It contains two districts: Štajerska Slovenija (Styrian Slovenia) and Prekmurje, the latter comparatively much warmer and producing more generous, full-bodied styles. One of the oldest vines in the world exists in Maribor, the capital of Stajerska Slovenija, at over 400 years old. Nearly 95% of the wines here are white. Laski Rizling (Welschriesling) leads the plantings but is largely destined for bulk production. Higher-quality wine come from Diseci Traminer (Gewürztraminer), Renski Rizling (Riesling), Chardonnay, and Sauvignon Blanc.

Posavje is third in production, with slightly more than half of Primorska’s total acreage under vine. Posavje borders the Croatian Inland region, which is characterized overwhelmingly by white wine production. There are three wine districts here: Bizeljsko Sremič (sought after for its sparkling wines), Bela Krajin (home to sweet Rumeni Muškat), and Doljenska (known for Cviček, a fashionable, tart blend of white and red grapes).

The coast of Croatia stretches from the Italian border southward and includes four wine regions: Slavonia and the Danube, the Croatian Uplands, Istria and Kvarner, and Dalmatia. These are then subdivided further into 12 subregions. The coastal regions include Istria and Kvarner to the north, where mostly white production takes place. Here, a distinct Malvasia grape called Malvazija Istarska is grown. The southern coastal region of Dalmatia, on the other hand, is home to mostly reds. Inland, where Slavonia and the Danube are located, the climate is warmest. Graševina (Welschriesling), Croatia’s most planted grape, is widely grown here. The cool, mountainous Croatian Uplands account for a small percentage of production, with an established tradition of sweet wine production, though aromatic whites are gaining in reputation. Though white wine dominates overall, there is an increasing interest in red Bordeaux varieties and the native Crljenak Kastelanski (Zinfandel) and its offshoot Plavac Mali. Mike Grgich, legendary Napa Valley winemaker and a native Croatian, produces Plavac Mali wines at his Grgic Vina estate in the Dingac subzone of Dalmatia. His personal recollection of Croatia’s coastal vineyards was the impetus that led UC Davis’s Carole Meredith to establish the definitive correlation between Zinfandel and Crljenak.

Czech Republic and Slovakia

Slovakia and the Czech Republic, the two independent entities that once formed Czechoslovakia, are not major wine-producing countries, yet both are attempting to elevate quality and production. Slovakia’s wine industry has been slowly rebuilding since achieving independence from Czechoslovakia in 1993. Slovakia is divided into six main wine regions spanning its entire southern border: Malé Karpaty Hills (Small Carpathian), Južnoslovenská (Southern Slovakia), Nitrianska (Nitra wine region), Stredoslovenská (Central Slovakia), Východoslovenská (Eastern Slovakia), and Tokaj. Malé Karpaty Hills is among the most important. Toward the Czech border, more white wine production takes place with grapes like Silvaner, Veltliner, Welschriesling, and Riesling; toward Hungary, where it is warmer, red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon and Blaufränkish are successful. Tokaj is contiguous with Tokaj in Hungary, and the two regions share a common winemaking tradition. Slovak vintners may use Tokajský/-á/-é (“of Tokaj”) on the label if they abide by revised Hungarian production regulations. Slovakia’s wine law came into effect in 2009, influenced by both France and Germany.

The Czech Republic has two principal regions: Moravia in the south and Bohemia in the north. Over 96% of the Republic’s land under vine is located in Moravia, where Welschriesling, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Gruner Veltliner, and Riesling shine. Moravia is just north of Austria’s Weinviertel, where Bohemia is located in the northwest, on the same latitude as the Rheingau in Germany. Geologically, the two are quite different, as granite, clay, and sand characterize much of Moravia, where limestone and basalt typify Bohemia.

Many international and Germanic varieties are common in the Czech Republic, including Müller-Thurgau, Frankovka (Blaufränkisch), Svatovavnnecké (St. Laurent), Ryzlink Vlassky (Welschriesling), Chardonnay, and Cabernet Sauvignon. Quality Wines with Special Attributes (Akostné vino s Prívlastkom) resemble German Prädikatswein, with an accompanying scale of Kabinett through Trockenbeerenauslese and Eiswein. Instead of the Oechsle scale, both countries use the Czecho-Slovak Normalized Must Weight Scale (NM), which measures the natural sugar in 100 liters of grape juice, where 1 degree CNM is equivalent to 1 kilogram of sugar.

After gaining its independence, and in preparation for EU accession, the Czech Republic fashioned its wine law after Germany’s, by ripeness level. In 2008, the new EU categories resulted in the terms CHZO for PGI wines and CHOP for PDO wines. As of 2018, 10 official geographical appellations (Vína Originální Certifikace, or VOC) were introduced: VOC Znojmo, VOC Mikulov, VOC Blue Mountains, VOC Blatnice, VOC Valtice, VOC Melnik, VOC Palava, VOC Slovácko, VOC Kraví Hora, and, most recently, VOC Bzenec. VOC Znojmo in Moravia was the first to receive this designation, in 2009. In order to display the VOC name on the neck of the bottle, a producer must abide by certain criteria, including hand-harvesting, minimum must weights, low maximum yields, and defined alcohol levels. As the new appellation concept evolves in the Czech Republic, it is intended to complement, rather than replace, the existing Germanic system.

The Russian Federation

Russian czars were famous for their conspicuous vinous consumption, with czars from Peter the Great forward sipping Tokaji Esszencia. Louis Roederer created its tête de cuvée Cristal for the exclusive enjoyment of Czar Alexander II—bottled in clear glass so as not to provoke the unpopular czar’s suspicion of foul play. The country eventually developed its own successful industry. In 1980, the former Soviet Union was the world’s fourth largest producer of wine, trailing only France, Italy, and Spain. The country’s viticulture was a model of commercial efficiency, but in the ensuing decade, production declined by over three billion liters annually, due to Gorbachev’s propagandistic anti-alcohol campaign. Today, little Russian wine is seen in the West, and the domestic market in Russia, awash in cheap imported juice, struggles to highlight quality. Only the southern portion of the country, particularly the region between the Black and Caspian Seas, is suitable for viticulture. Krasnodar, on the Black Sea Coast, is Russia’s most important region with over 50% of the federation’s vineyards. Krasnodar’s climate is one of Russia’s most moderate maritime-influenced climates, evidenced by the number of wealthy coastal resorts. Neighboring Dagestan and Stavropol, where many grapes are distilled into brandy, are notable regions, although each experiences extreme cold, requiring the vines to be buried in soil to survive the cold winter months. Rostov, Kabardino-Balkaria, and the war-torn Chechnya produce smaller amounts of wine.

Over 70% of Russian grapes grown are dedicated to wine. While over 100 varieties are approved, nearly half of the plantings are Cabernet Sauvignon. Other grapes that enjoy higher percentages include those that are grown for the burgeoning sparkling wine industry, such as Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, and Riesling. The local grape Rkatsiteli enjoys some prominence as well.

Former Soviet Republics

Ukraine is one of the most important wine-producing nations of the former Soviet Republic, although domestic consumption of wine pales in comparison to beer and vodka. If Crimea is considered part of Ukraine, a point disputed since its annexation by Russia in 2014, then there are four major regions of production: Crimea (Krim), Odessa, Nikolayev-Kherson, and the Transcarpathian region. Rkatsiteli continues to be a significant variety, and while Vitis vinifiera has always been preferred (with popular varieties including Sauvignon Blanc, Riesling, Welschriesling, and Furmint), hybrids like Isabella are beginning to gain ground. Odessa and Crimea account for nearly 80% of the total annual wine production. Both regions produce a lot of sparkling wine—often made in the traditional method—in addition to red and white still wines. Fortified wines are produced in Crimea, and Massandra, near Yalta, is famous for its huge collection of Crimean wines produced in the style of Sherry and Madeira.

The former Soviet republic of Georgia has one of the world’s oldest winemaking traditions, with archaeological evidence dating back to 6,000 BCE and wild vines (Vitis vinifera silvestris) common in the country. Over 500 indigenous grapes and clones exist here. There are 37 authorized varieties; of these, the indigenous red Saperavi and white Rkatsiteli are the most cultivated. Georgia is also known for its qvevri winemaking techniques, referring to the amphorae pots used for fermentation and aging wine beneath the ground. Traditionally, all components of the grape clusters (known as chacha) go into the qvevri. The earth moderates the temperature, and the wines are left to settle and clarify naturally. Georgia has 18 recognized appellations and 10 wine regions: Kakheti, Kartli, Imereti, Racha, Lechkhumi, and Meskheti, and the Black Sea subregions of Adjara, Guria, Samegrelo, and Apkhazeti. The southeastern region of Kakheti is responsible for about 80% of Georgia’s production.

South of Georgia, Armenia—where over 80% of grape production is distilled for local grape brandy—has experienced a recent revival in winemaking. Over half of its 50 wineries were registered in the past decade. Recent investment and modern winemaking technology have helped in this recovery. The climate is incredibly challenging. Nearly all vineyards require irrigation to combat the dry summers, and most have to bury vines for winter protection. There are five winegrowing regions in Armenia: Ararat Valley, Ararat Valley foothills, the Northeast zone, Vaiots Dzor, and Zangezur. Ararat Valley, including the foothills, is where nearly 80% of grapegrowing occurs. The local Areni Noir from the Vaiots Dzor region is showing great promise.

To the west of Ukraine, Moldova shares a winemaking tradition with neighboring Moldavia in Romania. While Moldova is one of the smallest of the former Soviet republics, it has the greatest number of vines per capita in the world. Moldova has optimal conditions for grapegrowing. It is situated on the same latitude as Burgundy, with an overall temperate climate and rolling hills. The Black Sea offers a moderating cooling influence. There are four wine regions, three of which are PGIs: Codru (central), Ștefan Vodă (southeast), and Valul lui Trajan (southwest). Codru has a more continental climate, producing fragrant, fresh whites and restrained reds. Valul lui Trajan enjoys a Mediterranean climate and is valued for its full-bodied reds. Purcari in Ștefan Vodă is known for its ageworthy reds. Bălti, the fourth region, located in the north, produces a small percentage of grapes that are primarily meant for distillation. A wide array of varieties are planted, but only about 10% are considered local, including Fetească Albă, Fetească Regală, and Fetească Neagră. French varieties represent the most vineyard land; Aligoté, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Pinot Noir are among those found in the region.

The Western Balkans are a patchwork of potential. Bosnia and Herzegovina, situated in the mountains, deliver sweet whites and table reds made from Blatina. While two businesses dominate Serbia’s wine industry, a handful of small family estates continue respected artisan production. There is a vibrant, youthful scene in Vojvodin, in northern Serbia, where producers are experimenting with aging vessels, biodynamic viticulture, and minimal intervention winemaking. The climate of the region is similar to that of Hungary. Albania holds promise for indigenous varieties in a Mediterranean climate. Structured Vranec and Kratosija (Zinfandel) can be found in Montenegro. Finally, North Macedonia is improving its winemaking and reputation throughout its three regions, of which the Vardar Valley is the most significant.

Selected Resources

Gilby, Caroline. Wines of Bulgaria, Romania, and Moldova. Oxford: Infinite Ideas, 2018.

Johnson, Hugh, and Jancis Robinson, eds. The World Atlas of Wine. 8^th ed. London: Mitchell Beazley, 2019.

Robinson, Jancis, ed. The Oxford Companion to Wine, 4^th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.

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North America

user22387 — Thu, 09 Jan 2025 21:57:31 GMT

Current Revision posted to Study-Guide by user22387 on 1/9/2025 9:57:31 PM

The United States
History of Wine in America
The AVA System and Labeling Requirements
California
California: The North Coast
California: The Central Coast
California: The Central Valley and Sierra Foothills
Washington
Oregon
New York
Other Winemaking Areas of the US
Canada
Ontario
British Columbia
Mexico
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The United States

The United States of America is the world’s fourth largest producer of wine and claims the world’s sixth highest acreage of land under vine.

California produces approximately 85% of all American wine, followed by Washington, New York, and Oregon. Compared with traditional wine-producing countries, the US has a large population, surpassing France in early 2011 to become the world’s largest wine consumer. Despite this, the US ranked only 62^nd in per capita consumption by 2016, with just 30% of the population identifying as wine drinkers. In 2019, the US experienced its first decline in wine consumption in 25 years, as the industry lost market share to fast-growing categories such as canned hard seltzers, spirits, and craft beer. Still, the US continues to provide the world’s most substantial market for fine wines. Further, over the past 20 years, powerful American critics have had a significant influence on winemakers and markets worldwide.

History of Wine in America

In the early ninth century, the Viking Leif Eriksson brought his boat aground at L’Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland, Canada, becoming the first European to definitively set foot on the North American continent. He christened his discovery Vinland—possibly a reference to the meadows before him or, as recounted in the 13^th-century poem “Saga of the Greenlanders,” a tribute to the wealth of native grapevines. Unlike in South America, several species of wild grapevines awaited the first colonists of North America, including Vitis labrusca, Vitis rotundifolia, and Vitis aestivalis. Vitis vinifera, the source of fine wine grapes, unfortunately did not. Following Columbus’s journey in 1492 and the subsequent rush to explore and colonize the New World, European colonists attempted to produce wines from the native grapes but were generally repelled by the grapes’ inherently foxy odors and turned to imported vines. A 1619 Virginia law required every male colonist at Jamestown, the first successful English settlement on North American soil, to plant and tend at least 10 vines—the earliest record of vinifera vine plantings on the East Coast. This experiment, like many others along the Eastern seaboard, ended in failure as the European vines succumbed to new vine diseases and the phylloxera pest. Interest in winemaking in the British colonies of America dwindled; cider, beer, and whiskey became the alcoholic beverages of choice in the18^th century.

Thomas Jefferson, a gourmand devoted to the best wines of Bordeaux, showed relentless enthusiasm for wine, lingering on business in the Médoc on the very day in 1787 that the Constitutional Convention opened in Philadelphia. Jefferson viewed wine as a mark of genteel society, and “the only antidote to the bane of whiskey.” Jefferson planted vinifera at his Virginia estate, hoping that the young country could produce its own fine wine and assert its self-sufficiency in the process. Unfortunately, his efforts (along with those of George Washington) were met with continual failure, and more than 30 years of vineyard cultivation ended without a single bottle of wine. The Founding Fathers had to settle for the best of Europe, as Madeira, Sherry, and the wines of France graced state tables. Unbeknownst to them, Spanish settlers beyond the western frontier were achieving success with vinifera grapes. The Mission grape, introduced to Mexico in the early 1500s, made its way northward to Rio Grande settlements in present-day Texas and New Mexico as early as 1629. Franciscan monks brought the Mission grape to what would become the state of California and established vineyards at each of their historic missions along the West Coast. In 1783, Franciscans at the San Juan Capistrano Mission produced California’s first wine from the grape. In 1823, the Franciscans built the San Francisco de Solano Mission, the last of the missions and the northern terminus of the Spanish Empire in North America—a site now occupied by Sonoma’s town square. By 1839, George Yount had arrived in Napa as the first American settler to set foot in the valley and had planted its first vineyard.

The annexation of California from Mexico in 1847 and the discovery of gold at Sutter’s Mill in 1848 brought a wave of prospectors, American soldiers, and pioneers to the San Francisco Bay, and wine production increased correspondingly. The Hungarian-born, self-styled “Count” Agoston Haraszthy arrived in Sonoma in 1849, where he founded Buena Vista, one of California’s oldest commercial wineries. Dubbed the father of California wine, the colorful Haraszthy introduced more than 300 varieties to the state, collected as vine cuttings during his European travels. He is often credited with introducing Zinfandel in California, though this claim has been disproven. The mythology of the man—who is also reported to have operated the first commercial steamboat on the Mississippi, founded Wisconsin’s oldest incorporated town, and served as San Diego’s first town marshal—may greatly exceed the reality, but his story has become Californian wine legend. Fittingly, the legend ends with his spectacular demise in the jaws of alligators, deep within the jungles of Nicaragua.

Credit: Brandon Lee Wise

After working for Haraszthy, Charles Krug moved in 1861 to St. Helena in Napa Valley and founded his eponymous winery—the oldest in the valley. Jacob Schram built Schramsberg in 1862. Beringer, Napa’s oldest continuously operating winery, was established in 1876, and the Finnish immigrant Gustav Niebaum founded the legendary Inglenook Winery in 1880. By the last decade of the 19th century, Napa Valley had nearly 20,000 acres under vine; Sonoma Valley had over 22,000. The rising interest in Californian wine stood in stark contrast to the near total devastation of European vineyards due to phylloxera in the late 19th century, which in turn drove even more investment to the state. But California was not immune to phylloxera, which was discovered in Napa and Sonoma in the early 1870s. It wreaked havoc on the state’s vineyards throughout the 1880s and 1890s. Salvation for the decimated vines on both sides of the Atlantic came from the much maligned but phylloxera-resistant American vine species, particularly Vitis riparia and its hybrids. Since the late 19th century, Vitis vinifera vines throughout the world have generally been grafted on American rootstocks.

While California’s pioneers built a foundation for a future in fine wine based on European varieties, American grapes and hybrids continued to populate the vineyards of the Eastern United States. Although French Huguenots and Dutch settlers experimented with winemaking in 17th-century New York, commercial winemaking can be traced to the 1840s, when Robert Prince produced wine from native grapes on Long Island. American nurseries began crossing vinifera vines with American species, hoping to produce a hardier vine that retained vinifera characteristics for superior wines. The Finger Lakes region in upstate New York was extensively planted with such hybrids from 1850 onward. Along with the native Concord, the American hybrids Catawba and Delaware dominated vineyards. The nation’s first bonded winery, Pleasant Valley Wine Company, was established in 1860 and is still operating today, near Hammondsport in the Finger Lakes. By the end of the 19th century, the Finger Lakes claimed over 24,000 acres under vine. Viticulture also thrived in Ohio: at the height of his winemaking career in the mid-19th century, Nicholas Longworth annually produced 150,000 bottles of traditional method, hand-riddled sparkling Catawba. In Missouri, German immigrants were by 1856 producing 100,000 gallons annually, and Stone Hill Winery in Hermann became the third largest winery in the world by the turn of the century. American grapevines and their hybrids were vitally important in Missouri. To this day, the Norton grape remains the pride of the state—connoisseurs of Norton can now enjoy their favorite Vitis aestivalis grape out of a Riedel glass commissioned especially for the wine. Charles Valentine Riley, a Missouri entomologist, earned his place in the history of wine for being the first to understand the innate resistance of American grape species to phylloxera. The French even erected a statue in Montpellier in his honor.

In 1920, America’s young wine industry faced its greatest crisis: the “noble experiment” of Prohibition. Christian temperance movements gained power throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, resulting first in a series of state-level prohibitions—Maine outlawed the sale of alcohol in 1851, followed by Kansas in 1881—and culminating in the nationwide ban on the manufacture and sale of “intoxicating liquors” with the ratification of the 18th Amendment to the Constitution. Prohibition led to a near-total shutdown of America’s wine industry, although a few wineries survived by producing still-legal Christian sacramental wines. The Frenchman Georges de Latour’s Beaulieu Vineyards actually thrived during the dry times, declaring itself the House of Altar Wine. The 21st Amendment, ratified in 1933, finally ended Prohibition, but American tastes (and winemakers’ skills) had atrophied. Sweet, fortified jug wine accounted for 81% of California’s production in 1935. Cheap, generic table wines sold under the guises of Burgundy, Chablis, Port, and Sherry flooded the American market in the decades after Prohibition ended. From the end of Prohibition through the early 1970s, America’s wine industry became truly industrial, as it focused on inexpensive, lower-quality wines for a generally uneducated domestic market. This period also marked a firm shift in the bulk of the industry to California.

To Kalon Vineyard in Napa Valley (Photo credit: Shawn DeMartino)

While the Italian-born Gallo Brothers were churning out oceans of cheap Thunderbird and Night Train Express from California’s Central Valley, a small core of wineries in Napa and Sonoma continued to pursue quality. In 1938, Georges de Latour hired André Tchelistcheff, a Russian winemaker trained in France, to oversee the production at Beaulieu. He introduced the Georges de Latour Private Reserve Cabernet Sauvignon, a new benchmark in quality for American wine, and brought updated standards of hygiene and techniques to California, including temperature-controlled fermentations and controlled malolactic fermentation. Tchelistcheff mentored many of California’s young talents—including Robert Mondavi, Louis Martini, Joe Heitz, and Mike Grgich—who became industry giants and helped reshape the image of Napa and California wines in general. Prohibition survivors like Inglenook, Beringer, and Beaulieu in Napa were surpassed by ambitious new wineries of the next generation by the late 1960s. Following his departure from Charles Krug due to a family feud, Robert Mondavi, a man many credit with creating the “brand” of Napa Valley, launched his winery’s first harvest in 1966. In 1967, table wines surpassed fortified wines in domestic consumption for the first time. In 1968, Mondavi singlehandedly made Sauvignon Blanc saleable by renaming it Fumé Blanc and aging it in oak. By the mid-1970s, a segment of American wine consumers was maturing and started to look for wines tied to their region of origin. Unlike most European wines, the new breed of American fine wines were labeled by variety, with Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay emerging as the grapes of choice for Napa’s producers.

The struggle to achieve higher quality was not limited to Napa: Hanzell, Martin Ray, and Simi were early modern pioneers in Sonoma, and winemaker Paul Draper in 1969 took over production of Monte Bello at Ridge in the Santa Cruz Mountains. The nearby Mount Eden Vineyards, originally established by Paul Masson in 1878, produced its first vintage under its new name in 1972. The first Chalone Vineyard bottling (Monterey’s oldest commercial vineyard) debuted in 1960. In 1970, disregarding much advice to the contrary, Richard Sanford planted Pinot Noir in his new Sanford & Benedict Vineyard in Santa Barbara’s Sta. Rita Hills. Interest in the winemaking tradition of nearby Paso Robles was slowly reviving. By the late 1970s, both Oregon and Washington had small, quality-conscious wine industries, and the Ukranian-born Dr. Konstantin Frank demonstrated in the face of tremendous skepticism that Vitis vinifera could grow successfully in the Finger Lakes. His Vinifera Wine Cellars, founded in 1962, received praise for its Riesling and sparkling wines and ignited a new interest in noble varieties in New York. In 1965, David Lett of the Eyrie Vineyards planted his first Pinot Noir grapes in the Willamette Valley, pioneering the varietal style for which the valley would become internationally known. America’s reputation for fine wine was slowly improving.

In 1976, that reputation catapulted forward. Results of the 1976 Judgment of Paris, a blind tasting organized by a young Steven Spurrier, surprised the globe, as two Napa Valley wines—Stag’s Leap Wine Cellars Cabernet Sauvignon and Chateau Montelena Chardonnay—placed first in a blind tasting against a sampling of first and second growth Bordeaux, and premier cru and grand cru Burgundy, respectively. Boom times for Napa and for the California wine industry in general resulted, bringing foreign investment and heightening domestic interest. In 1978, a Diamond Creek Cabernet Sauvignon was the first Napa Valley bottling to top the $100 mark at release. By 1991, California’s plantings of Cabernet Sauvignon reached 30,000 acres and its Chardonnay 50,000 acres. By the new millennium, total acreage for both grapes doubled. New wineries opened at a seemingly exponential rate as America’s wine country became associated with a lifestyle of luxury. The market—and the business of wine criticism—grew alongside them.

Phylloxera recurred in California’s vineyards in the 1980s. In Napa alone, over half of the vineyards had to be torn out and replanted—a new opportunity for producers to reassess grapes and clonal selections for each site. The 1990s signaled a stylistic shift in California, as ripeness, body, and higher alcohol levels found champions among influential critics, and many producers adjusted both viticulture and winemaking decisions to support more weight and fruit. In Napa, a new wave of upstart cult producers, including Screaming Eagle, Colgin, and Harlan Estate, emerged with stratospheric price tags previously reserved for Europe’s most pedigreed wines. Lifestyle, aesthetic, and the inherent quality of wine became suddenly more difficult than ever to disentangle, as hundreds of new producers, devoid of history, followed their lead into the premium wine market.

Though consumption patterns have dipped, Americans drank over 900 million gallons of wine in 2018 and lead the world in wine consumption. As viticultural science and techniques continue to improve, quality moves forward overall. Older winemaking areas have been refined or rediscovered, and the importance of matching grapes to appropriate sites is becoming clearer, leading to the exploration of new vineyard areas. Wine is now made in all 50 states, and the United States has become a world leader in production, consumption, and criticism of wine.

Still, the American wine industry is not without its own crises. New rootstocks may keep phylloxera at bay in California, but it is a rising concern in Washington, where it is a slow but gradual threat, as many winegrowers still have ungrafted vineyards. The Pacific Northwest also struggles with red blotch as well as fungal trunk diseases. Throughout California, Pierce’s disease and red blotch cause serious alarm for growers. Furthermore, premiumization seems to have hit its ceiling in recent years, as the Millennial generation is not as enthused by or loyal to luxury brands. Millennials consume a range of alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages and have a rising interest in lower-alcohol alternatives and more eco-friendly packaging. Finally, the power of American critics like Robert Parker has engendered its own criticism, as some charge that the modern, ultra-ripe style prevalent among many American (and global) producers has evolved to win their praise. A rising number of apps and online forums have begun to put more weight and value in consumer-based reviews.

The AVA System and Labeling Requirements

Prior to the creation of American Viticultural Areas (AVAs), the only legal appellations for wine in the US were politically determined: the existing boundaries of states and counties. Although states and counties remain legal appellations, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) in the late 1970s finalized a new system that would, in theory, demarcate appellations based on distinctive geographical, physical, and climatic features. The bureau approved America’s first AVA in Augusta, Missouri, in late 1980, and Napa Valley gained AVA status in 1981. Today, the Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB), a new federal bureau created by the Homeland Security Act of 2002, oversees the AVA system. In 2007, the TTB suspended the entire process of new AVA approval in the midst of a controversial new proposal to create a Calistoga AVA within Napa Valley. The proposed AVA exposed a contentious disconnect between the rights of a brand and truth in appellation labeling, as two wineries—Calistoga Cellars and Calistoga Estates—did not use enough Calistoga fruit in their wines, and stood to lose their names if the TTB approved the AVA application. In late 2009, the TTB approved the AVA without grandfathering in either winery, setting an example for future label integrity.

Legally, AVAs are only an indication of geographic origin and do not require producers to adhere to any additional guidelines in the vineyard or the winery. If a label lists an AVA, a minimum 85% of grapes used to produce the wine must have originated in the stated region. If producers choose to label their wines by county, state, or country instead, the minimum is lowered to 75%. California, Washington, and Oregon are exceptions: wines labeled as California or Oregon are required to be made solely from grapes grown in the state, whereas wines labeled as Washington must contain at least 95% of grapes grown in the state. Wines labeled by single vineyard contain a minimum 95% of grapes grown in the stated vineyard.

Percentage of Grapes Required for Labeling by Appellation:

If labeled by country, state, or county: 75%
If labeled by AVA: 85%
If labeled with a single vineyard: 95%

For wines labeled with an AVA, a minimum 95% must come from the stated vintage; for wines labeled with a state or county, the minimum is relaxed to 85%. Wine with a varietal designation must contain a minimum 75% of the stated variety—Vitis labrusca grapes, like Concord, are an exception, and need only comprise a minimum 51% of a varietal wine. Alcohol content must be stated on the label, within a margin of plus or minus 1.5%. As an alternative, wines in the 7 to 14% ABV range may simply be labeled as table wine or light wine. Labels must also include a government health warning and the phrase contains sulfites, provided sulfites are present in a concentration of 10 parts per million or more.

All wines must declare the name and address of the bottler. In order to legally qualify for the term estate bottled, 100% of a wine must come from grapes grown on land owned or controlled by the winery. In addition, the winery and all vineyards used in the production of an estate-bottled wine must be located within the same AVA. The 394,088-acre Northern Sonoma AVA, which includes large swaths of most of the county’s northern AVAs, was proposed by Gallo of Sonoma, which may now blend across pre-existing AVA boundaries for its estate-bottled wines.

California

Much of California is well suited to grapegrowing, experiencing ample sunshine, mild winters, and generally low humidity, which prevents high disease pressure. The main grapegrowing regions lie in the central and coastal area of the state, as the most northerly section can get too cool and the interior too hot. The major winegrowing regions of California are divided into five large AVAs: North Coast, Central Coast, South Coast, San Francisco Bay, and the Sierra Foothills.

California's AVAs; click to enlarge and zoom in (Credit: California Wine Institute)

Defined loosely by geology and climate, these AVAs ultimately serve to allow smaller AVAs that are further apart to be blended and still have a qualifying AVA with a general sense of origin. Each of these includes a number of smaller AVAs—for example, Napa Valley AVA and Sonoma Valley AVA are both located within the North Coast AVA. Most of the fine wine districts are located near the coast, where fog and cool sea breezes mitigate temperatures and create a large diurnal swing from warm days to cool nights. The South Coast AVA, which covers land in the counties stretching from Los Angeles to San Diego, has made little impact in terms of fine wine production. The inland Central Valley, source of 75% of the state’s wine, is not considered an AVA.

California produces a wide range of varietal wines, led by Chardonnay and Cabernet Sauvignon. Merlot, Syrah, Zinfandel, Pinot Noir, and Sauvignon Blanc enjoy extensive plantings. French Colombard and Chenin Blanc both occupy thousands of acres, but they are mostly confined to the Central Valley, where they produce bulk wine for blends. Curious producers throughout California continue to experiment with new varieties, and one is likely to find just about anything bottled as a varietal wine in California, from the more routine Gewürztraminer, Viognier, Petit Sirah, Grenache, and Mourvèdre to the occasional Tempranillo, Vermentino, Grüner Veltliner, Valdiguié, Graciano, and Nebbiolo. Meritage, a term trademarked by the Meritage Alliance, is used by producers to indicate a premium blend in which no grape accounts for more than 90% of the wine. Meritage wines may be red or white, but must be produced from Bordeaux varieties. Zinfandel, thought to be California’s native son before Carole Meredith, an American grape geneticist, produced research definitively linking it to Croatia’s Crljenak Kastelanski, dominated the vineyards of California in the late 19th century but fell out of favor, losing ground to the classic noble varieties of Europe. Regardless of its Croatian origins, many producers champion Zinfandel as a uniquely American wine style and covet old vine plantings for their concentration and character. Some of the oldest vineyards in California are planted to the grape and were spared, ironically, by the success of White Zinfandel in the 1980s. Other grapes popular in the field blends of years past have receded in acreage, like Charbono, Carignan, and the teinturier grape Alicante Bouschet.

The North Coast

California’s North Coast is the epicenter of fine wine production in the US. The North Coast AVA includes the counties of Napa, Sonoma, Mendocino, Lake, Solano, and Marin.

Napa County, home of Napa Valley AVA, is California’s preeminent fine wine region and the birthplace of a classic style of American Cabernet Sauvignon. Approximately 4% of California’s vineyard acreage is in Napa Valley, and it encompasses 17 sub-AVAs, named for the surrounding mountains and towns of the valley. The Napa Valley itself stretches northward from the San Pablo Bay past the principal towns of Napa and St. Helena to Calistoga, with its width narrowing—from five miles wide at the town of Napa to one at Calistoga—and temperatures warming perceptibly as one travels north. Cool ocean air funnels through the Petaluma Gap into the San Pablo Bay and upward through the valley. Carneros, the southernmost AVA within Napa, is suitable for the production of sparkling wines, whereas Calistoga, the northernmost AVA, routinely sees daytime summer temperatures above 90 degrees Fahrenheit, and producers focus on sturdier grapes like Cabernet Sauvignon and Zinfandel. Altitude also has a major effect on temperature—Napa Valley’s vineyards stretch from 0 to over 2,000 feet above sea level. The valley is formed by the Mayacamas Mountains to the west, which mark the border with Sonoma County, and the Vaca Mountains on the east. It has a remarkable diversity of volcanic, alluvial, and maritime soil types, ranging from well-drained gravel loam, to dense clays, to the thin, rocky soils of the hillside vineyards.

Napa Valley AVAs (Click to enlarge and zoom in)

Cabernet Sauvignon mountain fruit from Napa’s sun-drenched hillside vineyards and mountainside AVAs is prized for its density, dark fruit, and concentration, as these regions typically yield smaller berries with higher acid due to cool temperatures. Mountain appellations include Mount Veeder, Diamond Mountain District, and Spring Mountain District to the west, and Atlas Peak, Crystal Springs of Napa Valley, and Howell Mountain to the east. Howell Mountain is the wettest and coolest of the mountain appellations and the first sub-appellation wholly within Napa Valley to receive its own AVA. Its high-altitude, west-facing vineyards produce benchmark mountain wines. This is the only appellation that is elevation specific, beginning at 1,400 feet. Erosion is a serious concern for Napa’s hillside growers, as heavy winter rains can literally wash away a vineyard’s entire topsoil, leaving nothing but hard bedrock behind.

Valley floor topsoil is deeper, and valley fruit tends to produce a more elegant and supple style of Cabernet, with less intensity of color. Appellations here include Yountville, Oakville, Stags Leap District, Calistoga, St. Helena, and Rutherford. Rutherford AVA, known for its “Rutherford dust,” exemplifies the valley floor style, as it is home to a unique microclimate and set of soils that result in wines with a firm tannin profile. Chardonnay from Napa Valley has historically been opulent, weighty, buttery, and oak driven, although some producers are shifting to lighter styles, sometimes foregoing malolactic or barrel fermentation altogether. Other grapes grown in the valley include Zinfandel, Merlot, Cabernet Franc, Petit Verdot, Sauvignon Blanc, Petite Sirah, Syrah, Sangiovese, and Pinot Noir. In Carneros, Pinot Noir is heavily planted for sparkling and still wine production.

To the west of Napa, Sonoma County includes over 50 miles of coastline, separated by a ridge that helps protect many of its more coastal vineyards from temperatures that would render it too difficult to grow grapes. Sonoma is responsible for 6% of California wine production. While red grapes lead, Chardonnay is the most planted variety overall at over 16,000 acres. Sonoma County contains 19 AVAs: Alexander Valley, Dry Creek Valley, Rockpile, Bennett Valley, Knights Valley, Chalk Hill, Russian River Valley, Sonoma Valley, Moon Mountain District Sonoma County, Green Valley of Russian River Valley, Sonoma Mountain, Sonoma Coast, West Sonoma Coast, Northern Sonoma, Pine Mountain-Cloverdale Peak, Fort Ross-Seaview, Fountaingrove District, Petaluma Gap, and most of the Carneros AVA, which extends from Napa into the extreme south of the county. From 2011 forward, all wines produced in the county are required to state Sonoma County on the label, regardless of whether or not the label also indicates an AVA.

Sonoma County AVAs (Click to enlarge and zoom in)

Sonoma County AVAs cover a much larger area than the AVAs of Napa, and there is a wide variation in climate and soil throughout the county. The windy, foggy Carneros AVA is a cool area, classified as Region I on the Winkler Index, whereas the warm northern AVAs of Alexander Valley and Dry Creek Valley are considered Region III. The coolest temperatures can be found in the northern stretches of the Sonoma Coast AVA, where altitude, cold ocean air, and persistent coastal fog combine to keep temperatures down. Pinot Noir and Chardonnay thrive, along with cool-climate renditions of Rhône varieties. However, as the Sonoma Coast AVA contains nearly 500,000 acres, the more inland and southern areas within it can experience a warmer Region II climate, and even the true coastal vineyards, if above the marine fog layer, may produce bold wines of concentration and power rather than elegance and focus. In regards to defining the true coast, The West Sonoma Coast AVA was approved in 2022. This AVA hugs 141,846 acres along the coast from the southern border of Mendocino to the town of Bodega Bay. The Russian River Valley AVA, which follows the river southwest from the town of Healdsburg, is also highly regarded for Pinot Noir and Chardonnay made in fruity, forward styles, yet the appellation’s more moderate climate may ultimately prove most hospitable to Rhône grapes and Zinfandel. Fertile alluvial soils, such as Goldridge sandy loam, characterize the valley. Green Valley is not merely a subregion of Russian River Valley but also its own unique AVA, distinct for its cool temperatures, Goldridge soil, and morning fog layer. Since Green Valley is a nested AVA within Russian River Valley, producers may label their wines Green Valley or Russian River Valley; they often choose the latter in warmer vintages. Coastal producers of note include Hirsch, Marcassin, and Peay. Dehlinger, Joseph Swan, Rochioli, and Williams-Selyem are prominent names in Russian River Valley. Kosta Browne, Freeman, and sparkling wine producer Iron Horse are all Green Valley-based estates.

The northern AVAs of Alexander Valley, Dry Creek Valley, Rockpile, and Knights Valley, are located to the north and east of Healdsburg. They have warmer Region III climates—Knights Valley is the warmest AVA in the county. Bordeaux grape varieties, particularly Cabernet Sauvignon, are most prominent in the gravelly soils of Alexander Valley and Knights Valley. Alexander Valley Cabernet Sauvignon tends to show a more herbaceous character and less body than its Napa counterparts, but Knights Valley wines, such as Peter Michael’s Les Pavots, can be very similar in style. Dry Creek Valley and the small Rockpile AVA are known for ripe, powerful styles of Zinfandel, aged in either American or French oak. In the southern sector of the county, Sonoma Valley AVA, the county’s most established region, is situated between the Mayacamas and Sonoma Mountains and runs nearly parallel to Napa Valley. Zinfandel, Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, and Cabernet Sauvignon are successful in the region. Like Napa, Sonoma Valley’s temperature gets progressively warmer as one travels north, although Bennett Valley, a nested AVA in the northwestern sector of the valley, favors Merlot, as it is too cool to routinely ripen Cabernet Sauvignon. The cool, windswept hills of Carneros form the valley’s southern extremity at the San Pablo Bay. The Champagne house of Taittinger and the Cava producer Codorníu both set up American sparkling wine estates in Carneros in the 1980s, following the pioneering example of Gloria Ferrer. The Petaluma Gap AVA was designated in late 2017. Named after the wind that funnels through lower Sonoma County due to a coastal mountain opening stretching from the Pacific to Petaluma and veering south toward San Pablo Bay, the AVA is marked by its wind and fog. Cool climate Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, and Syrah are its main focus.

North of Sonoma County, Mendocino’s best winegrowing regions are centered at the confluence of the Russian and Navarro Rivers in the southern portion of the county. The Mendocino AVA, which has stricter boundaries than the county appellation, lines both rivers and encompasses the AVAs of Anderson Valley, Potter Valley, Redwood Valley, McDowell Valley, Yorkville Highlands, Cole Ranch, and a portion of Mendocino Ridge. Pine Mountain-Cloverdale Peak, which extends north of the Sonoma County border into Mendocino, is not included within it. Nor are two small, secluded AVAs in the northern sector of the county, Dos Rios and Covelo. In 2014, the Mendocino AVA decreased in size—a rare move—so that its boundaries would not overlap those of a new AVA approved in the same year, Eagle Peak Mendocino County. Cole Ranch, the smallest AVA in America, has a single vineyard, Cole Ranch, and McDowell Valley is essentially a monopole AVA of McDowell Valley Vineyards. Anderson Valley offers one of California’s coolest climates, as ocean air and fog trail inland along the path of the Navarro River, framed by steep hills. As testament to the Anderson Valley’s cool, marginal climate, the Champagne house of Louis Roederer established its American operations there rather than in Carneros, where many competitors landed, and today produces one of the more elegant styles of sparkling wine in California. In addition to the classic sparkling varieties, Riesling and Gewürztraminer perform well here.

The inland areas of Mendocino AVA, particularly around Ukiah, are noticeably hotter. Mendocino Ridge AVA stretches southward from the Navarro River along the coast, but the appellation is restricted to vineyards that are at least 1,200 feet above sea level. Zinfandel thrives in the sun above the fog line. To the east of Mendocino, Lake County is the smallest wine-producing county in the North Coast. High elevations and cold winters allow for successful grapegrowing despite hot summers. Lake County has nine AVAs, the most prominent of which is Clear Lake. Despite its inland location, Clear Lake helps to buffer hot temperatures. This, coupled with beneficial diurnal swings, results in grapes with higher acid retention.

The Central Coast

California’s Central Coast AVA spans the entirety of California’s coastline from San Francisco Bay in the north to Santa Barbara County in the south. Directly east and south of the San Francisco Bay are the AVAs of Livermore Valley, Santa Cruz Mountains, Ben Lomond Mountain, Santa Clara Valley, San Ysidro District, Contra Costa and the sprawling San Francisco Bay AVA itself. Immediately south of the city of San Francisco, the large Santa Cruz Mountains AVA provides a cool coastal climate, where high-altitude vineyards are interspersed between miles of redwood forest. Ridge’s Monte Bello Vineyard and the original Bonny Doon Estate Vineyard, an eventual victim of Pierce’s disease, are among the Santa Cruz Mountains’ most celebrated parcels. The warm inland Livermore Valley achieves success with Sauvignon Blanc; Wente is the most notable producer within the appellation. Despite the inclusion of Santa Cruz County in the Central Coast AVA, Santa Cruz Mountains AVA is excluded.

South of San Francisco Bay is Monterey County, home to Carmel Valley and Salinas Valley, the “lettuce capital of the world.” In the wake of Napa’s success, Monterey AVA was extensively planted with vines. Here, a gap in the mountains that runs perpendicular to the coast (west to east) allows warm air at the southwestern end of the valley to pull in the cool ocean air downstream. Although the region, boasting one of California’s longest growing seasons, seemed promising, much of its output had ended up in bulk blends from the Central Valley. Chardonnay leads here, accounting for about 40% of plantings in Monterey AVA. Pinot Noir is highlighted in Santa Lucia Highlands AVA, home to Garys’ Vineyard, and also in Mount Harlan AVA, within San Benito County, in the Gabilan mountain range to the east, where Calera produces acclaimed wines from the grape. Chalone AVA, an appellation dominated by the producer of the same name in Monterey, lies to the south in the same range. In 2022, Gabilan Mountains AVA was established and encompasses both Mount Harlan AVA and Chalone AVA.

The San Luis Obispo and Santa Barbara counties are south of Monterey. San Luis Obispo’s Paso Robles AVA is a giant appellation covering 614,000 acres (40,000 of which are planted) with wide variations in climate and soil—the principal rationale for the creation of 11 new AVAs in 2014. Broadly, the western reaches are characterized by cooler marine air funneled through the Templeton Gap and more prevalent limestone and calcareous soils. East of the Salinas River, the soil structure is sandier, and the climate in general is warmer and more arid. Zinfandel has a long history in Paso Robles, and Cabernet Sauvignon became increasingly important as the area saw an infusion of large-scale wineries in the 1980s. Rhône varieties are growing in importance. Gary Eberle planted California’s first commercial Syrah vines in Paso Robles, and the nursery at Tablas Creek, a project owned in part by Château Beaucastel, provided clonal material from the Rhône Valley to interested producers across the state. Hospices du Rhône, the world’s largest Rhône wine celebration, is held annually in the area. Other AVAs in San Luis Obispo County include York Mountain, Arroyo Grande, San Luis Obispo Coast, and Edna Valley—the last of these offering a cool coastal climate appropriate for Pinot Noir and Chardonnay.

At Point Conception in Santa Barbara County, California’s coastline sharply bends, trending east-west rather than north-south. Santa Barbara’s valleys, including the Santa Maria Valley AVA and the Santa Ynez Valley AVA, trail from east to west through the San Rafael and Santa Ynez Mountains, parallel to the coastline. The AVAs of Sta. Rita Hills, Happy Canyon of Santa Barbara, Ballard Canyon, and Los Olivos District are located within the Santa Ynez Valley. Alisos Canyon, is a standalone AVA nestled in between the Santa Ynez and Santa Maria Valleys. In early 2006, a legal dispute with the Chilean winery of the same name led Sta. Rita Hills to legally abbreviate its appellation name. Despite a lengthy history of viticulture—Santa Barbara is the site of one of California’s original missions—interest in winemaking has only taken off in the last several decades, reinvigorated by the success of Richard Sanford’s original vineyard in the Sta. Rita Hills. The giant Bien Nacido Vineyard in Santa Maria Valley AVA was planted to premium varieties, principally Pinot Noir and Chardonnay, in the mid-1970s, not long after Sanford & Benedict was established. Santa Barbara County’s Region I maritime climate and lengthy growing season—the longest in California—is lauded for cultivation of Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Merlot, and Rhône varieties. Public awareness of Santa Barbara wines, and of Pinot Noir in general, skyrocketed in the wake of Alexander Payne’s 2004 film Sideways, a paean to the region and the grape.

The Central Valley and Sierra Foothills

The bulk of California’s wine is produced in the state’s vast, hot Central Valley, an extensively irrigated agricultural area divided between the northern Sacramento Valley and the southern San Joaquin Valley—the latter with over 100,000 acres under vine. The Central Valley is generally divided between Region IV and Region V heat summation zones, temperatures most suitable for fortified wines, table grapes, and raisins. Gallo, the second-largest producer in the world, is headquartered in Modesto, and half of the Central Valley’s wine is produced by its facilities. As evidenced by the wines of Gallo and other Central Valley giants, including Franzia (owned by the Wine Group) and Bronco Wine Company, most Central Valley production is of bulk wine quality—low in cost and low on character of site. Thus, despite its extensive area and huge production, the Central Valley has relatively few AVAs.

The largest and most important Central Valley AVA is Lodi, home to over 20% of California’s total wine grape production. Located just south of Sacramento on the eastern edge of the Sacramento River Delta, Lodi is slightly cooler than much of the Central Valley due to the influence of a gap in the coastal ranges that pulls coastal air inland from the San Francisco Bay and over the delta. This area can experience diurnal shifts as great as 45 degrees Fahrenheit, allowing for refreshing acidities and bright fruit development. Lodi is home to large, value-oriented brands such as Sutter Home and Robert Mondavi Woodbridge as well as small boutique wineries, many of them specializing in old vine Zinfandel production. Lodi includes seven AVA sub-appellations: Alta Mesa, Borden Ranch, Mokelumne River, Cosumnes River, Jahant, Sloughhouse, and Clements Hills. Other AVAs of note in the Central Valley include Dunnigan Hills, Clarksburg, Capay Valley, and Merritt Island.

The Sierra Foothills AVA is located to the east of Sacramento and Lodi, on the western edge of the Sierra Nevada Mountains in the heart of California’s 19th-century gold rush territory. The fragmented region is divided into several sub-AVAs: Fair Play, El Dorado, Fiddletown, North Yuba, and California Shenandoah Valley. Temperature is dependent on altitude; the lowest and hottest vineyards are located in Shenandoah. Chewy, spicy, concentrated Zinfandel, sometimes sourced from vines dating back to before Prohibition, is the Sierra Foothills’ most acclaimed style.

The University of California at Davis, located just west of Sacramento, has been a guiding light for California’s wine producers and home to one of the world’s most highly regarded institutes of viticulture and oenology. Many of America’s winemakers are graduates of its programs, and UC–Davis’s impact on winemaking and viticultural practices in the US cannot be underestimated—but not all of the influence has been positive. When phylloxera struck California in the 1980s, it attacked the now-infamous AXR-1 rootstock, a supposedly resistant rootstock supplied to the state’s growers by Davis. Officially, the institution deemed phylloxera to have mutated. Larger criticisms levied at UC–Davis by some question its role in the modernization, standardization, and manipulation of viticulture and wine.

Washington

Despite a relatively short history of viticulture, Washington has emerged as the nation’s second largest producer of premium wines, accounting for approximately 5% of total production. Most of the state’s wine regions, and over 99% of its vineyards, are located east of the Cascade Mountains, where the mountains’ rain shadow effect turns the land arid and necessitates irrigation. Rainfall here averages 6 to 12 inches a year. Eastern Washington experiences a true continental climate, with hot summers and cold winters: frost and winter freezes are serious concerns for growers, but ripeness is easily achieved in the state's warm growing seasons. Sunlight is an ally, too, as Washington’s vineyards receive additional summer sunshine hours in accordance with its northerly latitude. Generally, the bedrock east of the Cascades is basalt, overlaid by sediments deposited by the Missoula Floods, a catastrophic cycle of massive floods that occurred repeatedly at the end of the last ice age, some 12,000 to 18,000 years ago. Vineyards in eastern Washington are thus typically planted on sandy or silty loam soils derived from the flood-borne sediments. Despite broad similarities in climate and soil, however, eastern Washington's vineyards tend to be spread out, with great distances between large vineyard plots.

Columbia Valley AVA is the largest appellation in the state, covering 11 million acres—over one-quarter of Washington’s landmass. It follows the outline of the Columbia River Basin and dips across the Oregon border. Most of Washington's other significant AVAs, including Yakima Valley, Walla Walla Valley, and Horse Heaven Hills, are nested within its borders.

Washington State AVAs (Click to enlarge and zoom in)

Yakima Valley was approved as Washington’s first AVA in 1983. It contains over one-third of the state’s vineyards, and it also has five nested AVAs: Snipes Mountain, Rattlesnake Hills, Red Mountain, Candy Mountain, and Goose Gap. Rattlesnake offers higher elevation vineyards ranging from 850 to over 3,000 feet and planted along ridges and terraces. Here, Merlot is the most planted variety, followed by Riesling and Cabernet Sauvignon. Unique soils and a plethora of varieties (over 30) characterize Snipes Mountain. Red Mountain, which despite its name is more a steep southwest-facing slope than an actual mountain, is desert-like in climate, receiving five inches of rainfall on average per year. Red Mountain is Washington's warmest growing region as well as its most densely planted AVA. It has developed a reputation for noteworthy, tannic Cabernet Sauvignon.

Along the Oregon border southeast of Yakima Valley and Red Mountain sits Walla Walla Valley, a shared AVA between the two states, which has emerged in this century as a prestige region. Here, soils consist of basalt bedrock and thin alluvial topsoil deposited by the Missoula Floods, and loess is everywhere. Vineyards are a small but growing segment of the valley's agricultural sector: vineyard acreage expanded from 450 acres to over 1,600 in the first decade of the 21st century and is now closer to 3,000 acres.

The AVA’s reputation for premium red wine is growing, too. Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Syrah are Walla Walla's most acclaimed varieties, comprising over 80% of its current plantings. Historically, white grapes, led by Chardonnay and Riesling—which has achieved more success in this state than elsewhere in the country—dominated viticulture, but by the early 2010s, red varieties had surpassed them in total acreage, with Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot the state's two most planted varieties. Merlot shows a distinctively full, sweet, and luscious character, but most producers believe that the future here is in great Cabernet Sauvignon. Other important commercial grapes include Syrah, Gewürztraminer, Sémillon, Sauvignon Blanc, and Cabernet Franc. Over 1,000 bonded wineries are currently in business in Washington.

Oregon

While Oregon is primarily regarded for its Willamette Valley Pinot Noir, there are a few other noteworthy wine regions. On the northern boundary with Washington, east of Portland, there are four AVAs: the shared AVAs of Columbia Gorge, Columbia Valley, and Walla Walla Valley, and The Rocks of Milton-Freewater AVA, which sits on an old riverbed within Walla Walla Valley, entirely on the Oregon side. This AVA, established in 2015, earned its name for a topsoil of basalt cobblestones that draws comparisons to the galets of Châteauneuf-du-Pape. Producers are just beginning to explore the potential here for Rhône-style wines. On the extreme eastern side of the state, a single vineyard is planted on the Oregon side of Idaho’s arid Snake River Valley AVA. Finally, Southern Oregon is steadily growing in size and stature, celebrating diversity among grapes and styles.

Oregon’s Willamette Valley, which stretches 120 miles southward from Portland, between the Cascades and the Oregon Coast Range (Coastal Range), is synonymous with quality Pinot Noir production. David Lett of The Eyrie Vineyards and Charles Coury of Charles Coury Vineyards were the first to explore its potential, traveling northward from California to plant Pinot Noir in the Willamette Valley in the mid-1960s. Dick Erath, Dick Ponzi, and others followed not long after. Lett’s 1975 South Block Reserve Pinot Noir achieved outstanding results in a French competition and brought vindication to the efforts of these early trailblazers. Soon after, in 1987, the Burgundy négociant Maison Joseph Drouhin purchased a Dundee Hills property, further validating the up-and-coming region. Today, the valley’s Pinot Noir wines are a steppingstone between California and the Côte d’Or: lighter in style and earthier than the former, riper and more forward than the latter. The cool, temperate climate of the valley invites further comparisons to Burgundy, and vintages are more variable than in Sonoma or Santa Barbara.

Oregon AVAs (Click to enlarge and zoom in)

In the mid-2000s, efforts to understand differences from site to site in the Willamette Valley resulted in the creation of six smaller AVAs within it: Dundee Hills, Eola-Amity Hills, Ribbon Ridge, McMinnville, Yamhill-Carlton District, and Chehalem Mountains. Five new nested AVAs were created more recently, bringing the total number of sub-AVAs to eleven: the Van Duzer Corridor AVA was approved in 2019, followed by the Laurelwood District and Tualatin Hills AVAs in 2020, Lower Long Tom in 2021, and Mount Pisgah Polk County Oregon in 2022. With these new divisions, winemakers could more closely explore (and identify with) different elevations and soil structures in the valley. For instance, Jory, a well-drained soil series of volcanic origin, is common in the "red hills" of the Dundee Hills AVA, while marine sedimentary soils like Willakenzie are more prominent on the valley's westernmost slopes, such as in Ribbon Ridge. As tasters often ascribe a denser style of wine and darker fruit to Willakenzie soils and more elegance to Jory, style profiles for the AVAs themselves are beginning to emerge. Climatic influences vary from one nested AVA to the next as well. Pacific winds funneling through the Van Duzer Corridor, a gap in the Coastal Mountains that separates the valley from the ocean, directly impact McMinnville and the Eola-Amity Hills, generating more tannic styles of Pinot Noir. The Chehalem Mountains AVA, on the other hand, has a number of north-facing vineyards that are among the valley's coolest sites. In the US, it is rare to have a winegrowing area like this, where all of these subtle differences can be viewed largely through the prism of one variety—Pinot Noir. It is the only red variety of any consequence in the Willamette Valley, but there are significant plantings of white grapes, including Pinot Gris (vinified in dry and off-dry styles), Chardonnay, and Riesling.

While the Willamette Valley connects Portland in the north with Eugene, the Southern Oregon AVA stretches from just south of Eugene to the California border, encompassing the AVAs of the Umpqua Valley, Elkton Oregon, Rogue Valley, Applegate Valley, and Red Hill Douglas County. A wide range of varieties is planted throughout Southern Oregon, including Pinot Noir, Syrah, Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot Gris, Gewürztraminer, and Chardonnay. Applegate Valley AVA is the warmest and driest growing region west of the Cascades in Oregon. Overall, Southern Oregon is still an underdeveloped wine region, lacking a nearby large market like Portland or San Francisco to drive interest and investment.

Varietal wines from Oregon—excluding those produced from white and red Bordeaux varieties, major Rhône grapes, Zinfandel, Sangiovese, Tannat, and Tempranillo—must contain a minimum 90% of the stated variety rather than the standard 75%. Oregon also maintains stricter state laws for labeling by region: a wine labeled by an AVA within Oregon must contain a minimum 95% of grapes grown in the respective appellation, rather than the 85% mandated by federal law.

New York

New York has the nation’s third largest vineyard area and is the third largest wine-producing state by volume, but the bulk of its grapes are harvested for purposes other than wine. The state’s most planted variety, Concord, composes about 19,000 of New York’s 33,000 vine acres, and only a third of it goes toward wine production. The rest is sold to large jam and juice companies, such as Welch’s, or consumed as table grapes. What is made into wine is typically sweet and inexpensive. Two large Kosher sacramental wineries, Manischewitz and Mogen David, make their wines from New York Concord.

Hybrid varieties such as Concord have dominated New York grape plantings since the industry’s modern inception in the early 19th century. Vinifera varieties struggle during New York’s punishing winters, experienced dramatically at its more interior regions. The perennial threats of spring and autumn frost cause dramatic losses for vinifera in periodic vintages, and the potential for winter freeze leads many winegrowers to bury their vineyards in the coldest months to avoid vine death. Several American grape species, such as Vitis labrusca and Vitis aestivalis, are native to the New York area and naturally adapted to the harsh winter climate. Such qualities are harnessed in the breeding of French-American hybrids, which are generally winter hardy, allowing for a more reliable crop than vinifera—especially before the advent of more contemporary protective viticultural practices.

Dr. Konstantin Frank of Vinifera Wine Cellars was key to the development of New York’s wine industry, helping advance New York wine to meet modern palates. Beginning in the 1950s, Frank worked to understand the potential for vinifera in the Finger Lakes and champion the state’s now-signature variety, Riesling. Historically, many wine critics looked down on hybrid varieties, often referencing an unpalatable grapey or musky character, termed as foxy. Today, winegrowers and drinkers are rediscovering the potential of French-American hybrids. Many contemporary examples from grapes such as Baco Noir, Seyval Blanc, Vidal, Cayuga, and Catawba demonstrate impressive quality and personalities distinct from vinifera wines.

New York AVAs; click to enlarge and zoom in (Credit: New York Wine & Grape Foundation)

Located near Rochester in central-western New York, the Finger Lakes AVA bottles 90% of the state’s wines. The region is named for the series of 11 narrow, roughly parallel lakes that define the region. These so-called fingers were cut by retreating glaciers at the end of the last Ice Age. Hugging the banks of the Finger Lakes, vineyards benefit from the lake effect, in which the water moderates temperatures, cooling the vines in the warmer months and warming them during the winter. Lake Ontario, located due north, has a similar effect on the area more broadly. The two deepest Finger Lakes, Seneca Lake and Cayuga, have their own AVAs.

The Finger Lakes has been New York’s leading wine region since the mid-19th century. Finger Lakes wineries of the mid-to-late 1800s focused on white and sparkling wines from French-American hybrids. Today, Riesling is the region’s flagship grape. It is made across the sweetness spectrum and, at its best, can challenge German examples in its complexity. Chardonnay, Gewürztraminer, Pinot Noir, Cabernet Franc, and even a small amount of Merlot have also found success in the Finger Lakes.

The sandy Long Island AVA stretches across the land mass of the same name, located east of New York City and separated from Connecticut by the Long Island Sound. Here, the climate is warmer than elsewhere in New York, allowing for the cultivation of Bordeaux varieties, such as Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Merlot, as well as Chardonnay, Gewürztraminer, and Riesling. As with the Finger Lakes, the Atlantic Ocean moderates temperatures to ward off frost. It also cools the vines during the hotter summers and barricades against warm southerly currents. The top vineyards are largely concentrated on the island’s eastern half. At its end, the island splits into two narrow forks, each with its own AVA: the North Fork of Long Island AVA and the Hamptons, Long Island AVA.

The Hudson River Region AVA is similarly influenced by the Atlantic. It follows the southern course of the Hudson River, from Columbia to Westchester counties, just above New York City. The towering Hudson River Palisades channel Atlantic breezes north, resulting in a cool climate that is often inhospitable to vinifera. Accordingly, the region is largely planted to hybrids, though some quality Chardonnay and Cabernet Franc are found. Notably, the Hudson River Region houses the United States’ oldest continually operating winery, Brotherhood Winery, founded in 1839.

North of Albany, the more recent Upper Hudson AVA also focuses on hybrid varieties, as does the cold and sparsely planted Champlain Valley AVA, located in the northeastern corner of the state on the shores of Lake Champlain at the Vermont border. In the far west of New York, the Niagara Escarpment AVA traces the same limestone formation that extends into Canada’s Niagara Peninsula. Moderated by Lake Ontario, the Niagara Escarpment AVA is also recognized for its ice wines, many produced from Vidal. The Lake Erie AVA, just southwest, is the land of Concord. This “grape belt” appellation, the largest vineyard area outside California, is shared with Ohio and Pennsylvania and better known for jelly and juice than for wine.

Other Winemaking Areas of the US

Although wine is produced in all 50 states, beyond the above major commercial areas of production, most is sold and consumed locally. Texas has eight viticultural areas, including the sprawling nine-million-acre Texas Hill Country AVA. New Jersey, Virginia, Missouri, Michigan, Florida, Kentucky, Minnesota, Arizona, New Mexico, Ohio, Illinois, North Carolina, Colorado, and Idaho all support small but substantial wine industries. Quality and variety can sometimes be surprising. There are, for example, good renditions of sparkling wine from New Mexico, Virginia Nebbiolo, Texas Tempranillo, and Michigan Riesling.

The Upper Mississippi River Valley AVA, spanning nearly 30,000 square miles in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Illinois, became America’s largest demarcated appellation with its formal approval in 2009.

Canada

Canada’s modern history of winemaking begins in the early 19th century, but Vitis vinifera vines were not planted on a commercial scale until the 1970s.

In the 1950s and 1960s, growers began moving away from traditional North American varieties like Concord and Niagara to French hybrids. De Chaunac, a red French hybrid developed by Albert Seibel but introduced to Canada after World War II by Adhemar de Chaunac, became one of Canada’s most planted varieties by the 1970s. De Chaunac ended the reliance of his employer, Ontario’s Brights Wines, on native grapes and introduced a number of other hybrids from his native France, including Baco Noir, Rosette, and Maréchal Foch. In 1951, he oversaw the successful introduction of 10 acres of Chardonnay at Brights, predating Dr. Konstantin Frank’s achievement in New York by just a few years. Brights Wines’ experimental vineyards of vinifera vines remained a small project, as French hybrids quickly came to dominate the Canadian wine landscape.

Like the US, Canada suffered through Prohibition in the early 20th century, albeit on a provincial rather than national scale. Ontario and Nova Scotia were the last winemaking provinces to repeal Prohibition, in 1927 and 1929. While the wine industry was starting to transform itself through the introduction of French hybrids in the decades after Prohibition, it was also undergoing a period of consolidation. A moratorium was placed on new winery licenses, and larger wineries like Brights swallowed up the smaller producers who struggled through Prohibition. By 1974, only six wineries remained in business in the country. However, the end of the moratorium in 1974 signaled the beginning of a new era of small premium production and vinifera wines, with the founding of Inniskillin in Niagara-on-the-Lake. In the next several decades, Inniskillin would almost singlehandedly create an international reputation for Canadian icewine. Although good icewine can be fashioned from Vidal—the only French hybrid allowed for VQA icewine—Inniskillin produced its most noteworthy wines from European grapes like Riesling and Cabernet Franc. In 1988, Canada signed a free trade agreement with the US, which required Canadian producers to refocus on quality in order to compete in their own domestic market and, when coupled with a government-sponsored vine-pull scheme, led to an even larger share in the vineyard for vinifera grapes. In the same year, an appellation and quality control system known as the Vintners Quality Alliance (VQA) was launched in Ontario. British Columbia established its VQA standards in 1990. Ontario and British Columbia, respectively Canada’s first and second most important wine regions, are the only areas with VQA status today. VQA standards are legally enforced in Ontario but voluntary in British Columbia. Approved bottlings will always carry the stylized VQA logo.

VQA wines from Ontario or British Columbia must be made from 100% of grapes grown in the respective province. If labeled with a more precise appellation, British Columbia VQA wines must contain a minimum 95% of grapes grown in the stated appellation, whereas Ontario VQA wines require 85% for appellations and regional appellations, and 100% for sub-appellations (in Niagara Peninsula). To be labeled with a single vineyard in either province, a VQA wine must solely contain grapes grown in the stated vineyard. With the exception of sparkling wines, all Ontario VQA wines must be labeled with a vintage date and contain a minimum 85% of grapes harvested in that year. For British Columbia VQA vintage-dated wines, the minimum requirement is also set at 85%. Varietal wines from both regions must contain a minimum 85% of the stated variety. Only certain varieties (including a select few French hybrids) are authorized for production. VQA standards set limits on chaptalization (it is not authorized for the production of late-harvest wines or icewine), acidification, must weights, and other technical aspects of winemaking.

Ontario

Ontario, Canada’s largest producer with approximately 15,000 acres devoted to vinifera grapes, is divided into three main appellations, or VQA Designated Viticultural Areas (DVAs): the Niagara Peninsula, Lake Erie North Shore, and Prince Edward County. A fourth appellation, Pelee Island (Canada’s southernmost point and smallest viticultural area, situated several miles off the shoreline of Lake Erie), existed until 2013, when it was formally deregulated. In 2016, this area was included in the South Islands sub-appellation within the Lake Erie North Shore DVA.

All of Ontario’s appellations are located between 41 and 44 degrees latitude, where the cool continental climate is mitigated by the lake effect of the Great Lakes, although the effect dissipates quickly as one travels away from the coast. The Niagara Peninsula is the largest viticultural area and is subdivided into two regional appellations: Niagara Escarpment and Niagara-on-the-Lake. Each regional appellation is in turn divided into a number of smaller sub-appellations. Riesling, Chardonnay, Cabernet Franc, Merlot, Gamay, and Pinot Noir are the dominant vinifera varieties in the Niagara Peninsula. Icewine, a German style first adopted in the Niagara Peninsula by Inniskillin, remains one of the most acclaimed wines of the region. Hopeful producers declare their intent to produce icewine to the VQA in November and allow grapes to remain on the vine into the winter, finally harvesting the frozen grapes at night, when temperatures reach at least -8 degrees Celsius. The resulting wine is concentrated, intensely sweet, and rich but retains acidity for balance. While icewine currently represents about half of Ontario's exports, it accounts for less than 5% of production. The increasing quality and local interest in dry wines is likely to spur increasing exports of the region's table wines. Excellent renditions of Cabernet Franc, Gamay, Riesling and traditional method sparkling wines are starting to find their way to the export market.

To the north, much of Prince Edward County is separated from the mainland by water, and the vineyards occupy a fractured landmass of well-drained soils, interspersed with inlets and coves. Pinot Noir and Chardonnay are key grapes for the region’s handful of wineries.

British Columbia

On Canada’s Pacific Coast, British Columbia supports nine DVAs: Fraser Valley, Gulf Islands, Kootenays, Lillooet, Okanagan Valley, Shuswap, Similkameen Valley, Thomson Valley, and Vancouver Island. The Okanagan Valley is one of the world’s most northerly wine regions, reaching northward of the 49th parallel, and the most developed region in British Columbia—the valley supplies 84% of the province’s wine. The narrow valley, located between the Cascades and the Monashee Mountains, enjoys long daylight hours and a true continental climate, despite some mitigation of extremes by the nearby Lake Okanagan. Summers are hotter than in California’s coastal regions, and winters are much colder, bringing annual fears of significant vine damage. Vineyards are almost evenly divided between white and red grapes, with Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Pinot Gris, Merlot, and Pinot Blanc enjoying significant acreage. In 1973, prior to Inniskillin’s inception, Walter Hainle produced icewine on a very small scale in Okanagan Valley, but the dessert style in general remains a minor aim for the province's producers. Only a handful of botrytis wines are made.

Mexico

Mexico’s winemaking history began with the arrival of the Spanish to the Americas in the 16th century.

The Spanish first tried to make wine with the indigenous vines they found in New Spain (now Mexico) but quickly realized these grapes would not produce good wine. In 1521, Hernán Cortés defeated the Aztec Empire, claiming it for Spain. One of his early orders from the King of Spain was to plant 1,000 vines for each native slave in the new territory. This was when Vitis vinifera, brought over from Europe, was introduced. Although there is controversy over the precise location where vinifera was first planted—some say it was in the state of Veracruz and others believe it was in Puebla—Mexico was the first country producing wine in the Americas.

Soon after the defeat of the Aztec Empire, priests began to travel north on missions, seeking to convert the native people. For sacramental use, they cultivated the Listán Prieto grape, also known as Mission—named, of course, for its association with these missions. New Spain's fledgling wine industry soon became so successful that it began exporting wine to Spain, rivaling the industry in the Old World. In the 1600s, Charles II of Spain retaliated by prohibiting winemaking in New Spain. He ordered most vines in the territory to be destroyed, with only a few surviving to produce wine for religious purposes. His law remained in effect until Mexican Independence in 1821.

In 1701, Juan Ugarte became the first person to plant vines in the state of Baja California while at the mission in Loreto. Jesuit priests with Misión Santo Tomás started growing a significant number of vines in 1791. During the reform war in Mexico in the 1800s, many of these church land holdings were sold to private investors, while others were abandoned. Bodegas Santo Tomás, for example, was established in 1888 after a private investor bought the land. In 1904, during the Porfiriato (when Mexico was ruled by Porfirio Díaz), the government gave a group of Russians immigrants escaping Tsar Nicolas II 100 acres in Baja California's Guadalupe Valley. They began to grow vines for personal winemaking and encouraged others to do the same, contributing to the region’s growing reputation as an area for quality winemaking. The 1970s brought a resurgence to the industry as Mexican wines were heavily promoted in Mexico City’s restaurants and winemakers began participating in international competitions. Established Spanish wineries such as Casa Pedro Domecq and Freixenet invested in the winemaking regions of Baja California and Querétaro. Today, a total of 25,000 hectares are planted across Mexico, with 8 of its 32 states producing wine. Mexico does not have any type of government regulation for viticulture or viniculture.

Producing 85% of Mexico’s wine across 3,360 planted hectares, maritime-influenced Baja California is the most important winemaking state, with a Mediterranean climate well suited to viticulture. Its Guadalupe Valley is home to over 140 wineries, including L.A. Cetto, the largest winery in Mexico. Situated 400 meters above sea level and 25 kilometers from the Pacific Ocean, the area has a strong oceanic influence. The soils on the valley floor are sandy, and the soils on the hillsides are a blend of granite and poor clay. Moving south, the Ojos Negros Valley is the highest altitude and coolest valley in the region at 800 meters above sea level. There is occasional snow here, and it can be warmer than surrounding areas in the summer. The soil is a blend of sand and clay. Further south and 45 kilometers from the city of Ensenada, the Santo Tomás Valley has clay and volcanic soils. The southernmost valley in Baja California is San Vicente, only 11 kilometers from the Pacific. The ocean and the vineyards are divided by a hillside that limits the humidity entering the valley, and the soils are deep red clay with high mineral content. Baja California's other production areas are Valle de la Grulla and Tecate.

Beyond Baja California, Coahuila and Querétaro are also key wine-producing states. Coahuila, east of Baja and bordering Texas, produces wine in Arteaga, Saltillo, and Parras de la Fuente. The last of these is most important, a valley oasis in the middle of the desert at 1,500 meters above sea level. It has clay soils and a warm desert climate with cool winters and warm summers. Located here is Casa Madero, the oldest winery in the Americas, founded in 1597. Querétaro is in the very center of Mexico, between 700 and 3,300 meters above sea level. It has a semi-arid climate and chalky and sandy soils. Ezequiel Montes, San Juan del Río, and Tequisquiapan are important growing areas.

The other wine-producing states, from north to south, are Sonora, Durango, Zacatecas, Aguascalientes, and Guanajuato. With the exception of Guanajuato, these states have a semi-arid climate and are dominated by sand and clay soils. Sonora is home to the regions of Bahía Kino, Caborca, and Hermosillo. Durango is divided by the Sierra Madre range, creating microclimates; its most important region is Gómez Palacio.

Zacatecas grows grapes in its most southern reaches, where elevation ranges from 400 to 2,000 meters above sea level and temperatures are consistent year round. The key regions are Ojocaliente and Valle de la Macarena. Tucked alongside the southern Zacatecas border, the small state of Aguascalientes has soft sandy soil with gravel and clay. Grapes grow in Pabellón de Arteaga, El Llano, Asientos, Jesús María, and Rincón de Romos at altitudes ranging from 800 to 1,800 meters above sea level.

Guanajuato was one of the first Mexican states to produce wine and is known for being the place where the Mexican revolution began. The proximity of the Sierra Madre mountains results in three distinct climates, but wine country, at 1,900 meters above sea level, is mostly continental, with volcanic and gravel soils. The important areas for winegrowing are San Miguel de Allende and Dolores Hidalgo.

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Greece

user22151 — Wed, 08 Jan 2025 22:06:21 GMT

Revision 1 posted to Study-Guide by user22151 on 1/8/2025 10:06:21 PM

Greece
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Greece

Greece first implemented wine laws in 1969 and 1970, with most of the country’s appellations established in 1971. Refined in the 1980s and overseen by the Greek Wine Institute, these appellation laws conform to EU standards and resemble the French model. There are two levels of PDO (Protected Designation of Origin) quality wine: Controlled Appellation of Origin, or Οίνοι Ονομασίας Προελεύσεως Eλεγχόμενης (AOC/OPE), a status reserved for traditional sweet wines; and Appellation of Superior Quality, or Οίνοι Ονομασίας Προελεύσεως Ανωτέρας Ποιότητος (AOSQ/OPAP). While these two separate categories might be found on labels, PDO Wines of Greece will appear on current and future bottles of wines featuring a designation of origin, especially those destined for export. PDO wines may carry an aging designation. Réserve indicates a minimum one year of aging for white wines, with at least six months in barrel and three months in bottle, and a minimum two years of aging for red wines, with at least one year in barrel and six months in bottle. Grande Réserve requires a minimum two-year aging period for white wines, including at least one year in barrel and six months in bottle, and a minimum four-year aging period for red wines, including at least 18 months in barrel and 18 months in bottle.

The Greek mainland includes the regions of Macedonia, Epirus, Peloponnese, Thessalia, Thrace, and Central Greece (Sterea Ellada). The Greek islands are broadly categorized into the Aegean and Ionian Islands. Although Thrace, in northeastern Greece, cannot claim any PDO appellations, neighboring Macedonia is home to some of Greece’s best dry red wines. In Macedonia’s PDO regions of Naoussa and Amynteo, red wines are produced solely from the firmly tannic red grape Xinomavro (“acid black”). In Goumenissa PDO, lighter Xinomavro wines are produced, requiring the addition of at least 20% Negoska. Naoussa PDO, established in 1971, is one of Greece’s most successful appellations and is the home of Boutari, one of Greece’s two largest producers and a major force in the modern rejuvenation of Greek winemaking. Amynteo is Greece’s coolest region and one of the few PDOs allowing production of rosé wines; these may range from dry to semisweet, and be still or sparkling. A fourth PDO, Slopes of Meliton (Plagies Melitona), is a single appellation for Domaine Carras, a trailblazing, ambitious Greek estate. Red PDO wines from the estate are blends of Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, and the native Limnio; white PDO wines are blends of the Greek varieties Assyrtiko, Athiri, and Roditis. Evangelos Gerovassiliou, the winemaker who launched Domaine Carras to international acclaim under the guidance of Émile Peynaud, nurtured the native white Malagousia grape from the brink of extinction and now produces varietal wines of high aromatic intensity from the grape at his own domaine in the PGI district of Thessaloniki, in central Macedonia.

Moschofilero in Mantinia

In Thessalia, south of Macedonia, Rapsani PDO includes four villages on the lower slopes of Mount Olympus. The appellation is the southernmost outpost of the Xinomavro grape, whose tannins and acid structure are softened by the warmer climate and blending with the Krassato and Stavroto varieties. Red wines are also produced in Messenikola PDO, whereas only white wines, blended from Roditis and Savvatiano grapes from higher-altitude vineyards, are allowed in Anchialos PDO. These wines may be dry, off-dry, or semisweet. On the Ionian coast to the west of Thessalia, the region of Epirus contains only one PDO: Zitsa. Dry, semisweet, and sparkling wines are produced from the Debina grape. Central Greece, or Sterea Ellada, is a bastion of retsina; Attiki, the region surrounding Athens, is the center of production. The low-acid Savvatiano, preferred for retsina because it retains some varietal character when resinated, is the chief grape in the region, and the second most planted variety is Roditis, the common name for a closely linked family of pink-skinned grapes. There are no PDO zones.

Agiorgitiko growing in the hills of Nemea

There are four wine-producing Ionian Islands off the west coast of Greece: Cephalonia, Kerkyra (Corfu), Lefkada, and Zakynthos. Cephalonia is the only Ionian island that has any PDOs. Robola of Cephalonia PDO is for dry white wines produced from Robola, a variety unrelated to the Ribolla or Rebula found in Friuli or Slovenia. PDO sweet wines are also produced on the island, from Mavrodaphne and Muscat. Zakynthos, an island of breathtaking beauty, visible from the Peloponnesian coast, is the home of Verdea traditional appellation wines. Verdea, produced from obscure and autochthonous grapes such as Skiadopoulo, Pavlos, and Avgoustiatis, may share similarities with Jura's vin jaune and sherry, but even to Greeks it is often unknown. A greater number of PDO appellations exist for the Aegean Islands, to the south and east of the mainland. Crete, the largest and southernmost Greek isle, accounts for approximately 20% of Greek wine production, yet the island struggles with quality. Crete is home to the red wine PDO zones Archanes and Daphnes, and the PDO zones Sitia and Peza, which permit both red and white wines. In 2012, three new PDO zones debuted on the island: Candia, Malvasia Candia, and Malvasia Sitia. The Vilana grape, used for the majority of dry white Sitia wines and the entirety of Peza whites, is Crete’s most cultivated white grape. Despite Vilana's status in the PDO wines of the island, many of Crete's most talented winemakers prefer to showcase Vidiano, a white grape that retains more acidity. Liatiko, the dominant grape in the red Sitia and Daphnes PDO wines, is found only on Crete and a handful of neighboring islands. It is one of the most ancient varieties under cultivation, it ripens in mid-July, and it delivers a distinctively orange-hued wine. Mandilaria, the most common red variety throughout the Aegean, is blended with Kotsifali to produce the Archanes and red Peza wines. On Crete, however, many winemakers are more excited to blend Kotsifali with Syrah—a recipe that may successfully mirror international tastes yet sacrifices some of the character of Crete in the process.

Selected Resources

Johnson, Hugh, and Jancis Robinson, eds. The World Atlas of Wine. 8^th ed. London: Mitchell Beazley, 2019.

Robinson, Jancis, ed. The Oxford Companion to Wine, 4^th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.

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